Ancient Egypt: From Beginning to End (Egyptian History - Egyptian Mysteries - Egyptian Mythology - Egyptian Gods) (Ancient Civilizations From Beginning to End Book 2)
Date: 2015-08-10T04:00:00+00:00
Keywords: History; Ancient Civilizations; Egypt; World; Civilization & Culture; 90 Minutes (44-64 Pages)
Description: △ Ancient Egypt △ Beginning from its unification in the 3rd millennium BC and ending in its annexation by the Roman Empire in 30 BC, Ancient Egypt had spanned for nearly 30 centuries, leaving behind a wealth of relics that continue to entrance the modern world. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom to the hypnotic tomb of Tutankhamen, Ancient Egypt is a topic of intrigue that has earned universal prominence. In fact, its unending stream of allure has established a study of its own: Egyptology. Inside you will learn about… ✓ The Beginning of Ancient Egypt ✓ The Old Kingdom ✓ The Middle Kin

ANCIENT EGYPT

From Beginning to End

BY

Stephan Weaver

© 2015 Copyright

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the author.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

The Beginning of Ancient Egypt

CHAPTER II

The Old Kingdom

CHAPTER III

The Middle Kingdom

CHAPTER IV

The New Kingdom

CHAPTER V

The End of Ancient Egypt

BONUS CHAPTER

Ten Little Known Facts about Ancient Egypt

>> BONUSES <<

Introduction

In Ancient Egypt lies a towering, historical treasury; the culture, artistry, customs and architecture of this prominent era remain a global fascination.

The celebrated structures of antiquity such as the pyramids, temples of Karnak and Luxor, Ramesseum, Abu Simbel and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens attest to Ancient Egypt’s preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean region.

This eBook discusses each epoch: the Old, Middle and New Kingdom; the different dynasties and pharaohs that led to either the zenith or nadir of the kingdom; the constant predicaments of invasion, economic crises, famine, religious strife, civil unrest and much besides.

Enriched with a wealth of accounts, the eBook walks you through ancient Egypt, chronicling the events from its dawn to its demise.

CHAPTER I

The Beginning of Ancient Egypt

The early predynastic settlement of the Northern Nile Valley marked the advent of Ancient Egypt. And the Pharaonic period is preceded by the amalgamation of Lower and Upper Egypt, around 3200 BC.

Book of the Dead spell 17 from the Papyrus of Ani, by Unknown (1275 BC)

Egyptian Dynasties

The Egyptian Historian Manetho, in 300 B.C., wrote a book on Egypt’s history entitled Aegyptiaca. The book enlisted the number of dynasties (reigning families) at thirty. Unfortunately, the original book didn’t endure. However, historians who lived around 70 A.D., such as Josephus have amply cited Manetho in their own works.

Manetho’s thirty dynasties were split into “Kingdoms” by modern scholars. And the times referred to as the “Intermediate Periods” were when the monarchy was partitioned or when chaos reigned over the political and social arena.

Early Dynastic Period—3150BC-2686 B.C.

According to folk tales, the Archaic or Early Dynastic period witnessed the union of the northern and southern kingdoms of Egypt under the ruling of Pharaoh Manes, otherwise known as Menes or Meni. In 3118 B.C., Manes seized the north. After the leadership of the gods, Manes became the first mortal king.

Menes (1st Dynastic King of Egypt)

Early accounts of this history originate from the Aegyptical (History of Egypt) by Manetho, an ancient historian. It is only his work that quotes Manes and his conquest. Currently, it is believed that the man Manetho referred to as “Manes” was the Pharaoh Narmer (the first Pharaoh), who peacefully united the Upper and Lower Egypt and placed it under one kingship. Narmer’s rule extended from the city of Heirakonopolis to Abydos.

Before Upper and Lower Egypt united, there were settlements of self-governing villages, and Egypt was thus known as the Two Lands. Under the Early Dynastic period, trade increased considerably and the Mastaba tombs were established, owing to the extensive funeral practices of the elite.

Cultural Evolution

Around 3600 B.C., the Neolithic Egyptian community’s culture was mainly based on raising crops and domesticating animals. Soon after 3600 B.C., the growing Egyptian populace began to rapidly move towards a refined civilization. During this time, a new and unique pottery began to emerge, and the utilization of copper became extensively widespread. Furthermore, the Mesopotamian procedure of sun-dried bricks and codes of agricultural building became prevalent in the course of this era.

The peasant’s funerary tradition was by and large similar to that of the predynastic times, however, the elite wanted more. The Egyptians therefore started to build the Mastabas, which later became a prototype for the constructions during the Old Kingdom–the Step pyramid being one. The following successful 800 years was possible due to serial agriculture and centralization.

During this period, the Egyptian literature also made great advancement. At first, Egyptian writing had mainly been composed of a small number of symbols illustrating amounts of different substances. It expanded to over 200 symbols by the end of the 3rd Dynasty.

CHAPTER II

The Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom is an era of ancient Egypt that comprises the third to sixth dynasties from around 2686 - 2181 B.C. It is an era which saw ultimate prosperity and the manifestation of the world’s first grand monumental building—the Pyramid. The Old Kingdom is dated from (2686- 2181 B.C.)—from the Third Dynasty to the Sixth Dynasty. This era is called “the Age of the Pyramids” because of the plethora of pyramid constructioned at the time.

The Pyramids of Sakkarah from the North East by Frith, Francis (1858)

Egyptians in ancient times listed their pharaohs in sequence, starting with the rule of the sun god—Ra. Events weren’t noted down by the normally known calendar system, instead it was chronicled according to the ruling days of kings. The precise dates of episodes in the history of Ancient Egypt are therefore unreliable.

The Third Dynasty of Egypt

The time during which the Third Dynasty ruled in Egypt is said to be the milestone of Human history. Architecture tremendously developed in course of the Old Kingdom.  Also, amongst the many celebrated monuments of Egypt were built:  the pyramids and the Great Sphinx at Giza were but a few.

The first Step Pyramid at Saqqārah, 2630 B.C., was built by the second king of the Third Dynasty–Djoser. Imhotep was the main architect and designer of this grand monument. He also authored one of the earliest medical manuscripts expounding on the treatment of over 200 various diseases.

The Great Pyramid of Khufu, otherwise known as The Great Pyramid of Cheops—last of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World—was built in 2528 B.C. In 2494 and 2474 B,C, there were also constructions of the pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure.

List of the Dynasty III Pharaohs

2686- 2667 B.C.—Sanakht

2667- 2648 B.C.—Djoser

2648- 2640 B.C.—Sekhemkhet

2637- 2613 B.C.—Huni

2667-2648 B.C.—Djoser

The most outstanding king of the Old Kingdom of the Third Dynasty was Djoser (also spelled Zoser), the heir of Sanakhte. He ruled from 2691- 2625 and issued orders to construct the Step Pyramid at Saqqārah outside the royal capital. Having completely been constructed out of stone, the groundbreaking edifice marked the end of the use of mud bricks together with stone. The Step Pyramid was encircled with many limestone buildings projected to epitomize shrines meant for royal rituals.

Saqqarah Djoser, by Neithsabes (2005)

It was in the course of this period that the sovereign ancient Egyptian states came to be known as Nomes. The previous rulers were forced to undertake the position of a governor or else work in tax collection.

The pharaoh, during this era, was idolized as a deity by the Egyptians; they believed that he guaranteed the yearly deluge of the Nile, which was essential for agriculture. The Egyptians held the views of time functioning in cycles, and that the Pharaohs on earth toiled to maintain the steadiness of those cycles. They also considered themselves as superior beings, ones who have been selectively chosen.

2648-2640 BC—Sekhemkhet

Sekhemkhet, also spelt as Sechemchet, was the Pharaoh of the Third Dynasty during the Old Kingdom, who ruled from 2648-2640 B.C. He is believed to be either the sibling or the eldest son of King Djoser.

Records of Sekhemkhet’s reign are meager. The only relics that exist of him are the two rock inscriptions located at Wadi Maghareh. The first one depicts Sekhemkhet twice: once crowned in the Hedjet and the other, the Deshret. The second inscription portrays an act known as “smiting the enemy.”

2637-2613 B.C.—Huni

Huni, who was the last pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty during the Old Kingdom period, reigned for 24 years. It is the belief of several Egyptologist that Huni was the father and immediate predecessor of the pharaoh Sneferu, but other scholars have reservations. Huni is considered a rather perplexing figure in Egyptian history, because enduring documents, objects or monuments of that time are precious few, even though he never ceased to exist in Egyptian tradition.

Huni’s burial place is unknown. It is said that he constructed the pyramid of Maydūm; scholars, however, believe that it was most likely the work of his successor, Snefru.

Huni’s genealogical position in the family of ruling kings is highly disputed. Huni is often mentioned, in contemporary and later documents, with Snefru in the same sentence. Thus, it is the belief of historians and Egyptologists that Huni might have had relations with his successor, Snefru. Queen Meresankh I is indeed a key figure in this regard. She is the royal mother of Snefru, who assumed the title of queen; however, there are no existing sources which associate her name with the title of a daughter or wife of Huni. This condition raises doubts about whether Huni had any family relations with Snefru or not.

The Fourth Dynasty of Egypt

Egypt, under the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (2613-2494), was able to achieve the grand feat of building the Giza pyramids owing to the extended peace which was devoid of any foreign threats. Thus, their time and energy was expended on nurturing art.

List of the Dynasty IV Pharaohs

2613-2589 B.C.—Sneferu

2589-2566 B.C.—Khufu

2566-2558 B.C.—Radjedef (Djedefre)

2558-2532 B.C.—Khafre

2532-2503 B.C.—Menkaura

2503-2498 B.C.—Shepseskaf

2613-2589 B.C.—Sneferu

The first king of the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom was Sneferu (also spelled Sneferu), who, according to Manetho, ruled from 2613-2589 B.C. He built three pyramids—monuments that stand till today— and introduced magnificent designs and buildings of pyramids in Ancient Egypt.

Snefru hailed from a family in Middle Egypt, near Hermopolis, and possibly ascended to the throne through marital relations from the royal heiress, daughter of his predecessor.

According to Royal recordings of the Old Kingdom, Snefru carried out a massive raid southwards into Nubia, where he seized a lot of valuable goods. In the later days of his reign, the forays carried out westward against the Libyans were less severe.

From Sneferu’s reign, the most popular monuments are the three pyramids he built in Dahshūr: the Bent Pyramid, the Red Pyramid and the Meidum Pyramid. Sneferu is known for moving more stone and brick moved than any other pharaoh, making his pyramids unparalleled in size to those built by his predecessors. The structures of these pyramids also demonstrate the transformation from the Step Pyramids to the flat-sided true pyramids erected in the fourth dynasty.

Snefru’s pyramid at Maydūm, which was the first pyramid made in tribute to him, was initially built as a Step pyramid and then changed to a true pyramid under the direction of king Snefru. The Blunted (or Bent) Pyramid at Dahshūr, was the second pyramid of Snefru and the first one sculpted as a true pyramid.

The construction of the pyramids started with steep sides, but when structural errors emerged halfway through the construction, the engineers were compelled to minimize the angle of the sides. And this adjustment ended up creating the bent look of the pyramid structure. Snefru, some years later, succeeded in building a true pyramid called the Red Pyramid, which is believed to have become the king’s burial place.

Snefru’s foreign relations might have been strong in order for him to undertake massive building projects. Snefru’s conquest into Libya and Nubia had two objectives: one was to create an extensive labor force, and the other was to obtain the raw materials and other special products that were accessible in these nations.

Several people were captured and made prisoners under Snefru’s reign. These prisoners were often added to his labor force. During his forays in Nubia and Libya, Snefru would also seize cattle for the consumption of his huge labor force.

In the latter period of the Middle Kingdom, Snefru’s reign was regarded as Egypt’s a golden age.

After Sneferu reigned for 24 years, his son Khufu (Cheops, 2589- 2566 B.C.) acceded to the throne. Khufu was the renowned constructor of the Great Pyramid of Giza (Al-Jīzah).

2566-2558 B.C.—Djedefre

Djedefre (Djedefra or Radjedef) was the ancient Egyptian king of the Fourth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. Djedefre was the immediate successor and son of the pharaoh Khufu; the identity of his mother is not clearly known. He was married to his half-sister Hetepheres II.

Red granite head of Djedefre from Abu Rawash

Djedefre built a pyramid at Abu Rawash. It is the belief of some people that the sphinx of his wife, Hetepheres II, was the first to be created. It was part of Djedefre’s pyramid complex at Abu Rawash. According to the French Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev in 2004, Djedefre is responsible for the construction of the Sphinx at Giza in representation of his father.

Although Egyptologist formerly thought that his pyramid at Abu Rawash was not complete at the time of his death, evidence from 1995 to 2005 has validated its completion.  More recent evidence indicates that in the later periods, his pyramid was devastatingly raided.

Owing to the fragile shape of Abu Rawash, only the vestige of his mortuary has been discovered.

The Fifth Dynasty of Egypt

The Fifth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty V) is dated approximately from 2494 to 2345 B.C. The first two kings of the Fifth Dynasty were the sons of lady Khentkaues—member of the fourth dynasty royals. With the emergence of the Fifth Dynasty came the establishment of an administrative system and for the first time came high officials that were not a member of the royals.

The pyramids of the Dynasty V are smaller and weaker than those of the Fourth Dynasty. Nevertheless, carvings of the mortuary temples are well conserved and of supreme quality.

The enduring papyri of this period attest to the development of accounting and record keeping. They recorded the re-allocation of property between the royal residence, the officials and temples.

The pharaohs of this dynasty reigned for roughly 150 years.

Lists of the Dynasty V Pharaohs

2494-2487 B.C.—Userkaf

2487-2475 B.C.—Sahure

2475-2455 B.C.—Neferirkara Kakai

2455-2448 B.C.—Shepseskara Isi

2448-2445 B.C.—Raneferef

2445-2421 B.C.—Nyuserra

2421-2414 B.C.—Menkauhor

2414-2375 B.C.—Djedlkara Isesi

2375-2345 B.C.—Unas

2494-2487 B.C.—Userkaf

Userkaf was the first king of the Fifth Dynasty of ancient Egypt who reigned from 2494-2487 B.C. Throughout the period of his rule, the cult of Ra (god of the sun) obtained unprecedented importance.

Possibly a descendent of Redjedef (third king of the Fourth Dynasty), Userkaf fortified his position in the kingdom after tying the knot to the heiress Khentkaues, a descendant of the royal family.

The position of his queen was of high prominence, she even constructed her own tomb at Al-Jīzah (Giza), sometimes referred to as ‘the Unfinished Pyramid.’ Userkaf himself also built the first series of temples to Ra at AbūṢīr, situated in the west bank of the Nile —north of present-day Cairo.

The Sixth Dynasty of Egypt

The Sixth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty VI) is dated from 2345-2181 B.C. The surviving relics of several inscriptions from the Sixth Dynasty include documents of trading expeditions southward starting from the reign of Pepi I. Experts believe that the Sixth Dynasty is the last dynasty of the Old Kingdom.

The influence of the Sixth Dynasty pharaohs, who reigned for 164 years, progressively declined in favor of powerful Nomarchs (provincial governors). These Nomarchs became independent and were no longer part of the monarchs and their charge became hereditary, eventually producing local dynasties.

Lists of the Dynasty VI Pharaohs

2345-2323 B.C.—Teti

2323-2321 B.C.—Userkare

2321-2287 B.C.—Pepi I

2287-2278 B.C.—Merenra

2278-2184 B.C.—Pepi II

2184-2181 B.C.—Nitiqret

2345-2323 B.C.—Teti

The Pharaoh Teti was the founder of the Sixth Dynasty, who reigned from 2345-2323 B.C. He is believed to have married Iput, the daughter of the Fifth Dynasty Pharaoh Unas. According to Manetho, Teti was murdered by his own bodyguard; however, there is no confirmation from contemporary sources.

2321-2287 B.C.—Pepi I

Pepi I was the third king of the Sixth Dynasty of ancient Egypt, who reigned from 2321-2287 B.C. Pepi I was the son of Teti. Before succeeding his father, Pepi lived through the short sovereignty of Userkare, whose connection to Teti is unknown and who has been thought, based on precious little evidence, to have been a usurper.

During Pepi I’s reign, expeditions were carried out to Wadi Maghara in the Sinai Peninsula for mining expedition. There were also journeys to Hatnub and Wadi Hammamat.

2278-2184 B.C.—Pepi II

The most distinguished pharaoh of the Dynasty VI was Pepi II, the 5th king of the Sixth Dynasty. He ruled for almost a century. Late Egyptian tradition indicates that Pepi II assumed the throne at the tender age of six.

Pepi II was the son of Pepi I, who was born in the later years of his father’s reign. Pepi II, although very young, succeeded his half-brother Merenre, who had an abbreviated life span. His mother acted as a regent for many years, and until he acceded to the throne, the old group of royal officials ensured the peace of the kingdom.

Ruins of the pyramid complex of Pepi II, by Jon Bodsworth (2006)

During his ruling days, as a result of internal and external dilemma, the government was gradually weakened. His pyramid at southern Saqqārah is the Old Kingdom’s last major monument.

2184-2181 B.C.—Nitiqret

Nitiqret is believed to not only be the first female Pharaoh, but also the first queen in the world. However, it is argued that her name might have been a mistranslation of the king Neitiquerty Sitah.

First Intermediate Period and the fall of the Old Kingdom

The fall of the Old Kingdom and the poverty that came after Pepi II was indeed unexpected. The destruction of the Old Kingdom was occasioned by a sudden, unforeseen decline in the Nile flood. The situation was so brutal that famine, as a result, pervaded the country, paralyzed the political institutions, and engendered civil unrest. People were conducting unfathomable deeds such as killing and eating their own children and defying the sacred sanctity of the dead.

Following the fall of the Old Kingdom, emerged the time known as the First Intermediate period which lasted for about 200 years. The period is generally considered to include a rather unknown set of pharaohs (who’s reign was rather ephemeral after Pepi II) running from the end of the Sixth to the Tenth Dynasties, and most of the Eleventh Dynasty.

Culture

Egypt’s Old Kingdom was one of the most vibrant eras in the laudable growth of Egyptian art. Artists, in the course of this period, learned to depict the worldview of their culture, producing images and forms that survived for generations. Techniques necessary to construct monumental structures in stone were mastered.

The first portraits of individuals and the first life-sized statues in wood, copper and stone were created by sculptors. They became masters of the art of carving, relief decoration and, by attentively observing the mechanism of the natural world, created detailed images of animals, plants and even landscapes.

CHAPTER III

The Middle Kingdom

After the Old Kingdom collapsed in 2181 BC, ancient Egypt fell in the merciless hands of disorder and inundating chaos. This period of turmoil, which is called ‘The First Intermediate Period’ or the ‘Dark Period’, lasted for over one hundred years.

Frontispiece to The Description of Egypt, a book in the public domain for some time and published by the French government from 1809-1823

Very little record exists about the matrix of life in Egypt during this era. But what is confirmed is that this was a period during which ancient Egypt was divided and ruled by two powerful groups. One regime based its power in Lower Egypt at Heracleopolis, whereas the other inhabited Upper Egypt and made Thebes its capital.

Then in 2055 B.C. the Middle Kingdom emerged and marked the end of The First Intermediate Period. The advent of the Middle Kingdom was a defining moment in the history of ancient Egypt. It is believed to be Egypt’s ‘Classical Age’, a time where Egyptian art and culture reached their summit.

Entrance tomb BH14 Newberry by Percy E. Newberry, George Willoughby Fraser (1893)

The Middle Kingdom is known for uniting Egypt again and placing it under one rule, which is why this epoch is often referred to as ‘The Period of Reunification.’ This empire consisted of two powerful dynasties–The Eleventh Dynasty and The Twelfth Dynasty. According to some historians, however, the first half of the Thirteenth Dynasty was also part of the Middle Kingdom.

The Rise of the Middle Kingdom

Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II was the pharaoh of the Eleventh Dynasty that founded the Middle Kingdom.

At a young age Mentuhotep II inherited the Theban throne from his father Intef III–King of Upper Egypt. And for fourteen years he ruled the empire, which included the First Cataract in the south to Tjebu and Abydos in the north. These fourteen years were characterized by peace.

But then, right around the conclusion of the First Intermediate Period, the rulers at Herakelopolis wanted power over the entire nation. Eventually, they assembled their army and began their invasion of Upper Egypt. They conquered the Thinite Nome and destroyed whatever they found in their quest, one of which being the ancient Royal Necropolis of Abydos. Often, this era is referred to as the ‘Year of the Crime of Thinis.’

Montouhotep III - XI dynasty by Neithsabes (2008)

Angered by this campaign against his empire, Mentuhotep II then assembled his army and marshaled them to the north. He launched an attack on Herakleopolois and came out the victor. The king of Lower Egypt was killed during this conflict, which made it quite simple for Mentuhotep to conquer it.

This union of Upper and Lower Egypt in 2055 B.C. marked the emergence of the Middle Kingdom. Mentuhotep II then received high acclamation for accomplishing what seemed impossible for over 100 years–uniting Egypt.

The whole of Egypt then regarded Mentuhotep as a divine being. During his reign he was given quite a lot of names; ‘The son of Hathor, The lady of Dendera, Mentuhotep’, ‘The divine one of the white crown’, ‘The golden Falcon, lofty in plumes’ were but a few.

Mentuhotep continued uniting Egypt, restoring back the provinces that were lost in the course of the First Intermediate Period. One of his greatest accomplishments was the military campaign he launched in the Second Cataract in Nubia. By the end of his 39th regnal year Mentuhotep managed to cement the whole of Egypt under one rule, one Kingdom.

Mentuhotep made Thebes the capital of the Middle Kingdom. He ruled for 51 years, until he died in 2010 B.C. He was buried at Deir el-Bahari.

The Eleventh Dynasty

The Eleventh Dynasty in ancient Egypt ruled the whole of Upper Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. The dynasty was based at Thebes and it consisted of seven kings. In Toto, the reign of Dynasty XI lasted for about 143 years.

It was during the ruling days of this dynasty that Egypt united and the Middle Kingdom emerged, and so the pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty are divided in to two groups. The first group —Intef the Elder, son of Iku, the forefather of the dynasty and a self-proclaimed descendant of a nomarch of Thebes; Mentuhotep I, one who was believed to be the first king of the dynasty; Intef I, son of Mentuhotep I; Intef II, brother of Intef I, and Intef III, son of Intef II—belong to the First Intermediate Period. And the second group of pharaohs–Mentuhotep II, founder of The Middle Kingdom; Mentuhotep III, son of Mentuhotep II, and Mentuhotep IV—belong to the Middle Kingdom.

Sankhkare Mentuhotep III

After Mentuhotep II died in 2010 B.C., the throne was passed on to his son Sankhkare Mentuhotep III. But it was after 51 years he acceded to power, and so his ruling days were rather short – just 12 years.

The tomb of Montouhotep III - XI dynasty by Neithsabes (2008)

Regardless of how ephemeral his reign was, however, Mentuhotep III still managed to accomplish great things in ancient Egypt. He constructed several buildings and temples in Egypt, and forts in the eastern Delta region. And in his military excursion to the land of Punt, where 3000 strong warriors took part in, happens to be one of the many things this pharaoh is known for.

Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV

Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV was the Eleventh Dynasty’s last king. He succeeded Mentuhotep III when he died in 1998 B.C. The records on this pharaoh is quite scarce; his name is considerably erased from all ancient Egyptian king lists. The Turin Papyrus (Turin Canon) claims that there had been seven kingless years in Egypt after the death of Mentuhotep III.

According to the recordings of the Wadi Hammamat, however, Mentuhotep IV had journeyed frequently to the coast of the Red Sea, with Amenemhat–who is thought to be the first king of the Twelfth Dynasty—as commander.  There is no record regarding how he died or where he was buried.

The Twelfth Dynasty

The Middle Kingdom in ancient Egypt flourished under the ruling of the Twelfth Dynasty, which emerged in 1991 B.C. and ruled until 1803 B.C. The strong and powerful pharaohs of this dynasty brought the empire great riches, strength and harmony. The reign of the Twelfth Dynasty is seen as the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom.

List of Dynasty XII Pharaohs

1991 BC–1962 B.C.—Amenemhat I

1971 BC–1926 B.C.—Senusret I

1929 BC–1895 B.C.—Amenemhat II

1897 BC–1878 B.C.—Senusret II

1878 BC–1839 B.C.—Senusret III

1860 BC–1814 B.C.—Amenemhat III

1815 BC–1806 B.C.—Amenemhat VI

1806 BC–1802 B.C.—Queen Sobekneferu

Sehetepibre Amenemhat I

Amenemhat I was the founder of the Twelfth Dynasty in the Middle Kingdom. How he claimed the throne is still an arguable subject amongst scholars.

He was not of royal blood and records show that he might have been the vizier that led the expedition to Wadi Hammamat under Mentuhotep IV, the last of the Eleventh Dynasty pharaohs. Based on such facts, many, are inclined to believe that Amenemhat I killed Mentuhotep IV and claimed the throne.

Amenemhat I then moved the capital from Thebes to a new city called Amenemhat-itj-tawy (meaning Amenemhat the Seizer of the two lands) or Itj-tawy.

He conducted successful military campaigns against the Nubians, built the Wall of the Ruler in the East Delta region as a shield against Asiatic invasion, and reestablished diplomatic relations with neighboring states. He was also the first king in Egypt to establish a co-regency with his son Senusret I.

In 1962 B.C. Amenemhat’s reign came to an end, and was soon succeeded by his son Senusret I. According to various sources, Amenemhat I was killed by his own guards in his own palace. The renowned ancient Egyptian literature, Story of Sinuhe, describes the scene as such:

“Year 30, third month of the Inundation season, day 7, the god mounted to his horizon, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Sehetepibre went aloft to heaven and became united with the sun's disk, the limb of the god being merged in him who made him; whilst the Residence was hushed, hearts were in mourning, the Great Gates were closed, the courtiers crouched, head on lap, and the nobles grieved.

Now His Majesty had sent an army to the land of the Tjemeh (Libyans), his eldest son as the captain thereof, the goodly god Senusret. He had been sent to smite the foreign countries, and to take prisoner the dwellers in the Tjehnu-land, and now indeed he was returning and had carried off living prisoners of the Tjehnu and all kinds of cattle limitless. And the Companions of the Palace sent to the western side to acquaint the king's son concerning the position that had arisen in the Royal Apartments, and the messengers found him upon the road, they reached him at time of night. Not a moment did he linger, the falcon flew off with his followers, not letting his army know. But the king's children who accompanied him in this army had been sent for and one of them had been summoned”

Kheperkare Senusret I

Senusret I was a leader that had much semblance to that of his father. He reigned from 1971 B.C. - 1926 B.C.

Senusret I was on a military campaign in Libya when his father, Amenemhat I, got murdered. Hearing of this tragedy and the possibility of a coup, Senusret rushed back to Itj-tawy. He then claimed the throne and managed to restore peace and order in the empire.

This pharaoh is known for strengthening or completing most of the quests his father began. He marshaled his army further into the south of Nubia and managed to annex the region by erecting a border fort at Buhen. He also worked to strengthen Egypt’s commercial relations with neighboring states. And just like his father, in his 43rd regnal year, Senusret I established a co-regency with his son Amenemhat II.

Nubkhaure Amenemhat II

The ruling days of Amenemhat II were rather peaceful. There is little or no record of conflict or military expeditions during his time of rule. There are, however, certain inscriptions on the temple walls at Memphis and Tod that describe several events in which Amenemhet II signed peace treaties with some Syrio-Palestinan cities and campaigned to the south of Nubia to examine Wawat.

In his 33rd regnal year, Amenemhet II followed his family’s legacy and assigned his son, Senusret II coregent.

Khakheperra Senusret II

Much like his father, Senusret II’s ruling days were quite peaceful and uneventful.

His reign lasted only for about nineteen years, from 1897 B.C.–1878 B.C. And during this period, unlike his ancestors who set their hearts on the nation’s external affairs, Senusret II fixated his eyes more on resolving Egypt’s internal issues.

One of his greatest accomplishments was the development of the Faiyum irrigation scheme, which included dykes and canals. He wanted to transfigure the Faiyum oasis in to a fertile land, and because of how devoted he was to this project he situated his pyramid at el-Lahun.

As the incomplete constructions during his time of ruling suggest, Senusret II had plans of building several infrastructures for his empire. But his life came to a sudden end and all was lost.

Khakaure Senusret III

Senusret III was the Twelfth Dynasty’s warrior pharaoh. He is known for his triumphant military crusades in Nubia and Palestine. He’s also well acclaimed for building massive forts throughout the whole of Egypt.

Painting Djehutihotep daughter by Percy Edward Newberry (1891)

Internally, Senusret III also had a major presence, one he was well acknowledged for. One of his greatest accomplishments was the administrative reforms he activated. He arranged Egypt’s administrative body in to four regions; the northern and southern half of the Nile Valley and the eastern and western Delta region. To each section was assigned a Reporter, a Second Reporter, the Djadjat (or Council), and representatives of minor officials.

He also built a dam at Faiyum for the use of irrigation. Senusret III was the most famous pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty. In Nubia he was deified as a patron God.

Senusret III established co-regency with his son Amenemhat III in his 19th regnal year. The end of this pharaoh’s reign is an arguable matter, but historians mark the date 1839 B.C.

Nimaatre Amenemhat III

Under the ruling of Amenemhat III, the Middle kingdom reached the peak of its economic prosperity.

Sphinx Amenemhat, by E. A. Wallis Budge (1902)

He was the first king to reap the benefits of Egypt’s natural resources; he built mining camps in Sinai and continued cultivating the Faiyum land, which yielded him and his empire great riches. He also reinforced the defenses in Nubia.

The Middle Kingdom flourished during his ruling days. But it was also the time that helped bring the doom of the dynasty and the Middle Kingdom.

According to various researches, around the end of Amenemhat III’s reign there was a flood that caused drought and crop failure. This occurrence caused the dynasty great insecurities. Amenemhat III ruled for forty-five years and was succeeded by his son Maakherure Amenemhet IV, who ruled only for nearly a decade.

Queen Sobekkare Sobekneferu

Queen Sobekneferu was the first female pharaoh in ancient Egypt and last of the Twelfth Dynasty. She was the daughter of Amenemhat III and the half-sister of her predecessor Amenemhet IV.

According to the Turin Canon, she ruled for three years, ten months and twenty-four days. Not much can be said about her ruling days, except that she was the last pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty and that she didn’t have a successor to claim the throne.

The Fall of the Middle Kingdom

The death of Queen Sobekneferu marked the end of the Middle Kingdom. After her, a series of kings made claim to the throne, but ruled only for an abbreviated time. According to historians, these kings are part of the Thirteenth Dynasty. The names of these kings and their successive order are listed in the Turin Canon.

The Thirteenth Dynasty was then divided, and from this division emerged the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Dynasty. Rulers of Xois founded the Fourteenth Dynasty and the Hyksos, Asiatic rulers of Avaris, founded the Fifteenth Dynasty.

Following the emergence of these two dynasties, Egypt descended into chaos and conflict. Soon after, the Middle Kingdom came to an official end and the Second Intermediary period begun.

CHAPTER IV

The New Kingdom

The New Kingdom of Egypt (1550-1069 B.C.), otherwise known as the Empire of Egypt, was instituted when Ahmose I expelled the foreign rule of Hyksos who had reigned during the Second Intermediate period (1802–1550 B.C.).The New Kingdom includes the 18th, 19th and 20th dynasties. In the later days of this epoch (1292–1069 B.C.) eleven pharaohs obtained the name of Ramesses, as a result, this time is also called the Ramesside period.

This period comprises the reign of today’s best known pharaohs of Egypt: Hatshepsut, Tutankamun, Thutmose III, Amenhotep, Akhenaten and many others. The celebrated relics of history such as the temples of Karnak and Luxor, Abu Simbel, Ramesseum, and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the queens were built in the course of this time.

Egypt, with a strong central government, saw a prosperous year with an expansion of its dominion and trade routes.

Egypt Mummy mask of a boy, by BurgerSF (second half of 14th Century BC)

The Eighteenth Dynasty

Dynasty XVIII (1543-1292 BC), otherwise known as the Thutmosid Dynasty because of the four kings named Thutmose, boasted Egypt’s foundation to a prosperous reign. The advent of the New Kingdom ushered in the revival of Egypt; the Theban Kings ousted the Hyksos and the Egyptian armed forces enlarged the kingdom’s dominion by entering the lands of Palestine and Syria.

Banquet scene, painting on straw and mud, Thebes, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, c. 1400 BCE by Daderot (2011)

Egypt enjoyed an unprecedented prosperity of economy, trade expansion, foreign relations, innovative thinking, and artistry. This was made possible because of a succession of great kings and queens and a well-structured system of administration. The appointment of official positions was based on merit and competence which allowed for effective advances in all scopes of the kingdom’s enterprise.

This period was anything but uneventful. Thutmose I conquered and expanded Egypt’s dominion to Syria and Palestine to the west, the Euphrates River in the north, and Nubia to the south. Queen Hatshepsut and her successor Tuthmose III secured Egypt’s position as the first super power. Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti occasioned the world’s first instance of monotheism.

List of Dynasty XIX Pharaohs

1549–1524 B.C.—Ahmose

1524–1503 B.C.—Amenhotep I

1503–1493 B.C.—Thutmose I

1493–1479 B.C.—Thutmose II

1479–1458 B.C.—Queen Hatshepsut

1479–1425 B.C.—Thutmose III

1425–1398 B.C.—Amenhotep II

1398–1388 B.C.—Thutmose IV

1388–1350 B.C.—Amenhotep III

1351–1334 B.C.—Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten)

1334–1332 B.C.—Smenkhkare

1332–1323 B.C.—Tutankhamun

1323–1319 B.C.—Ay

1319–1292 B.C.—Horemheb

1479–1425 B.C.—Thutmose III

Thutmose III (often styled “the Napoleon of Egypt”) was the son of Thutmose II. During his infancy, his step mother and aunt (she was married to her brother Thutmose II) Hatshepsut (1479–1458 B.C.) ruled over Egypt. Despite her great statesmanship and her achievements of expanding foreign trade, especially to the land of Punt, Hatshepsut was not accepted as a female pharaoh. When Thutmose III ascended to the throne, he continued her legacy but committed to a campaign to eliminate all memory of her. It was his innate desire not to see her serve as an idol to Egyptian women whom he believed did not belong to leadership.

Thutmose III was a great military man like his grandfather Thutmose I. He brought the kingdom to its zenith by conquering the whole of Syria, crossing the Euphrates River to fight the Mitannians who he successfully defeated, and forging south along the Nile River to Napata in Sudan. He also built a legion of temples honoring his notable accomplishments. Thutmose III is seen as one of ancient Egypt’s greatest pharaohs.

1351–1334 B.C.—Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten)

The son of Amenhotep III and Tiye, Akhenaten was Egypt’s most controversial ruler. He was the father of Tutankhamen (by a lesser wife named Kiya) and Ankhsenamun, who was the wife and half-sister of Tutankhamen—her mother was Nefertiti.

In the beginning five years of his rule, he was referred to as Amenhotep IV. He continued his father’s legacy and adhered to Egypt’s polytheism. But then he went through a religious transformation; he forsook his cult of Amun and espoused the cult of Aten. He altered his name to Akhenaten, meaning ‘successful for’ or `of great use to’ the god Aten. And in the next twelve years of his rule his religious fixation led Egypt to a complete collapse.

Akhenaten’s rule is one of anarchy; it is often referred to as ‘The Amarna Period’ (1353-1336 B.C.). This was due to the fact that he changed the capital of the kingdom from Thebes to a city he established - Akhetaten, which later came to be known as Amarna. This was a capital dedicated to the god Aten. It can be argued that Akhenaten was a pharaoh that brought the dynasty to its nadir.

The Amarna Period was fraught with turmoil. Akhenaten implemented reforms aimed at establishing a single and supreme god. He pursued a policy of erasing the worship of other gods besides Aten. The names of the other gods were chiseled from monuments, the ancient practices were banned and temples consecrated to other gods were shut down. This era was a stark contrast from the polytheistic and religiously tolerant Egypt. The Egyptologist Zahi Hawass writes:

“Dating to this point in Akhenaten’s reign was a campaign to excise the name of gods other than the Aten, especially Amun, from the monuments of Egypt. This was done with violence: hieroglyphs were brutally hacked from the walls of temples and tombs. This was probably carried out, at least in part, by illiterate iconoclasts, presumably following the orders of their king. [Akhenaten] carried out a religious revolution the like of which had never been seen before in Egypt. His reign represents a significant departure from religious, artistic, and political norms (42-43).”

Akhenaten was notorious for his actions; in archival records, his successors referred to him as “heretic king”, "the enemy" or "that criminal". He remained an ambiguous entity in Egypt’s history until the finding of the city of Amarna in the 19th century.

1332–1323 B.C.—Tutankhamun

Despite his short life, Tutankhamen (also known as Tutankhamun and “King Tut”) is one of the most renowned historical relics of our time. His golden sarcophagus is now an emblem almost indistinguishable from Egypt. The name Tutankhamen means `living image of [the god] Amun.’

Tuts Tomb Opened, by the New York Times (1923)

Earlier findings used to argue that Tutankhamen’s reign was a rather peripheral one; however, recent evidence shows that his rule was indeed a decisive factor that restored order to an Egypt that was plagued with political and religious anarchy. This chaos was of course the making of his father Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten).

Tutankhamen ascended to power at the age of eight or nine in 1338 or 1336 B.C. after his father’s death. A coregent named Smenkhkare is believed to have reigned over Egypt in the interim period of Amenhotep IV’s death and Tutankhamen’s rise to power. Little is known about this interim pharaoh, but it is suspected that it might have been Nefertiti (the wife of Amenhotep IV and step-mother of Tutankhamen).  According to the Egyptologist Zahi Hawass,Nefertiti ruled under the pseudonym Smenkhkare (a male persona) in order to avoid the wrath that was seen a century earlier after the death of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut (women were not supposed to assume power).

During his time of ruling, Tutankhamen, with his elder counselors, made strides to collect the rags of Egypt that his father left behind. He re-established order, brought back the religion of Amun and repaired derelict temples.

Tutankhamen’s early death is a contentious topic among scholars. Some argue that the severe wound on his skull attest to his murder; others adduce his incestuous birth as a genesis of his early death. What can be asserted though is that Tutankhamen’s death sounded the Knell of the 18th dynasty.

Colossal statue of King Tutankhamun, New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, reign of Tutankhamun, c. 1334 BC, by Daderot (20144)

He too entered an incestuous marriage; his wife was his half-sister Ankhsenamun (incestuous practice was commonplace in the 18th dynasty). Their two children were stillborn, thus Tutankhamen left the dynasty without an heir. His sudden death caused an incubated struggle for power. Hawass writes:

“The country would have fallen in disorder at the sudden death of Tutankhamun, who left the land with no heir. At the moment of his death, it is possible that Egypt was engaged in battle with the Hittites, in which case it is likely that Horemheb, who might otherwise have been expected to take the throne, was in the north leading the troops. Another high official, [named] Ay, supervised the king's trip to the afterlife instead. Ay bore the titles of Commander of Chariotry and Fanbearer at the King's Right Hand...By burying Tutankhamun, Ay proclaimed himself the next king (58-61).”

Ay’s ascension to power (1323–1319 B.C.) meant that Ankhsenamun had to marry him. She didn’t want to; so as a desperate try she resorted to the help of the Hittite (today’s Turkey) king Suppiluliuma I. She wrote this to him:

“My husband has died and I have no son. They say that you have many sons. You might give me one of your sons and he might become my husband. I would not want to take one of my servants. I am loath to make him my husband (Hawass, 67).”

The King responded to her imploration and sent his son Zananza.He was killed before reaching Egypt. Nothing is known of the event that took place after that—whether Ankhsenamun married Ay or not.

After the death of Ay, Horemheb (1319–1292 B.C.) ascended to the throne. As he didn’t have a royal blood, he claimed that the god Horus of Hutsenu had chosen him for the job of restoring the earlier prominence and glory of Egypt. He was the last pharaoh of Dynasty XVIII.

The Nineteenth Dynasty

Dynasty XIX (1292-1187 B.C.) was founded by Vizier Ramesses I; he was selected heir by the Pharaoh Horemheb. The 18th dynasty was unparalleled in power and thus was able to expand its dominion easily. But it wasn’t so easy for the 19th dynasty which constantly clashed with the powerful kingdom of the Hittites which had grown to be a major superpower, extending its territories to Syria and Canaan. The dynasty is perhaps best known for its series of military conquests in Canaan.

The dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Seti I and Rameses II who spearheaded dynamic crusades against the Hittites and Libyans.

The pharaohs of this dynasty were buried in Thebes in the Valley of Kings.

Intra-fights between the power hungry heirs of Merenptah led to the decay of the dynasty. The last ruler of the dynasty was Queen Tausret (Twosret) who had a sinister repute in Egyptian folklore. She ruled for only two years (1191–1189 B.C.) and proved to be ineffective. It is most probable that she was expelled by Senakhte who was the founder of the 20th Dynasty.

1279–1213 B.C.—Ramesses II

Ramsses II was the third pharaoh of the dynasty. He is known to the Egyptians as Usermaatre Setepenre, meaning 'Keeper of Harmony and Balance, Strong in Right, Elect of Ra’. He is also known as Ozymandias and Ramesses the Great.

Ramesses II is considered to be the greatest rulers of the New Kingdom. He commissioned Egypt’s many elaborate buildings of the time: the temples at Abu Simbel, the enormous tomb complex known as the Ramesseum at Thebes, the complex at Abydos, the hall at Karnak, the celebrated tomb of Nefertari –which was his first wife—and hundreds of other building. The period of his reign is seen as the zenith of Egyptian art.

RamessesII is also celebrated for his conquests aimed at reclaiming territories of Levant that had been controlled by the eighteenth dynasty. His campaigns culminated to the Battle of Kadesh (1274 B.C.), fought between him and the Hittite king Muwatalli II.

Karnak temple, by Karelj (2010)

The pharaoh had the longest reign—he died at the age of 96. So long was his rule that when he died the Egyptian people feared the world would come to a devastating end. He later came to be known by the posterity as‘The Great Ancestor’.  Ramesses II had over two hundred wives and concubines from whom he bore sixty daughters and ninety-six sons. He outlived most of his children.

List of Dynasty XIX Pharaohs

1292–1290 B.C.—Rameses I

1290–1279 B.C.—Seti I

1279–1213 B.C.—Ramesses II

1213–1203 B.C.—Merenptah

1203–1197 B.C.—Seti II

1203–1197 B.C.—Amenmessu

1197–1191 B.C.—Saptah

1191–1189 B.C.—Queen Tausret (Twosret)

The Twentieth Dynasty

After usurping power from Queen Tausret (Twosret), Senakhte (1189–1186 B.C.) founded the 20th Dynasty (1189 to 1077 B.C.). His time of reign lasted for three years only and was immediately succeeded by his son Rameses III who was to be Egypt’s last great king.

During the 19th Dynasty, Egypt had enjoyed an unprecedented affluence which had allured the Sea Peoples (they’re origin is unknown but they are believed to have come from the Aegean area). They had demolished the Hittite empire and now had their eyes glued on Egypt’s wealth.

Although the Sea Peoples had attempted incursions earlier, Ramesses II had successfully kept them at bay. However, after his death, they managed to ransack Kadesh—then a territory of Egypt—and destroy the coast. Ramesses III engaged in a fierce battle between1180-1178 B.C., until he finally conquered them in the Battle of Xois in 1178 B.C.

After the rule of Ramesses III, Egypt was plagued by a legion of predicaments: a series of draughts, famine, below-normal flooding scales of the Nile, civil unrests and much besides. There followed a succession of kings named Ramesses; this was perhaps an attempt to redeem the past glories of Egypt.

The administration also faced a resistance from the populace of Egypt, namely those from the colonies. The clergy was another thorn to the central administration. After Tutankhamen restored the religion of Amun, the priests of Amun had grown very affluent and had appropriated massive land. They were a threat to the administration; their corruption led to the decay of social cohesion and the central government. By the time Rameses XI (1107–1077 B.C.)had ascended to power, the clergy had gotten so powerful that the High Priests of Amun at Thebes were governing the south as de facto rulers; this among other things occasioned the collapse of the 20th Dynasty and ushered in a new era known as the Third Intermediate Period (1069–664 B.C.) followed.

The List of the Rulers of Dynasty XX

1189–1186 B.C.—Setnakht

1186–1155 B.C.—Rameses III

1155–1149 B.C.—Rameses IV

1149–1145 B.C.—Rameses V

1145–1137 B.C.—Rameses VI

1137–1130 B.C.—Rameses VII

1130–1129 B.C.—Rameses VIII

1129–1111 B.C.—Rameses IX

1111–1107 B.C. Rameses X

1107–1077 B.C.—Rameses XI

CHAPTER V

The End of Ancient Egypt

The exact time that marked the end of ancient Egypt is a contentious one. Was it the last native Egyptian rule of dynasties 28-30? Could it be the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.? Was it the annexation of Egypt by the Roman Empire in 30 B.C.? Or was it the demise of the hieroglyphics?

Relief of a Nobleman, ca. 1295-1070 B.C.E

The fall of ancient Egypt is still a debate among scholars and the factors that led up to its collapse are quite complex. It is argued that the weakening of the dynasty can be traced as far back as the nineteenth dynasty during the rule of Rameses II. Egypt’s advance in military technology was sluggish; the Egyptian army was using weapons of bronze while its fiercest opponent—the Hittite army—had access to the new material: Iron.

Egypt was also struck by economic crises, an orgy of tomb-robbing and attacks by foreign bandits.

In the period from 1070 B.C. onwards, under the 21st dynasty, Egypt was split into two: the northern part of the region was governed by the pharaoh and the south by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes. This disturbed the nation’s unity.

1085-664 B.C.—The Third Intermediate Period

Third Intermediate Period (1085-664 B.C.) lasted for about 400 years. Egypt saw political, social and cultural revolutions.

During the 21st Dynasty there was a rebellion carried out by local officials; Egypt was also invaded by foreign forces from Nubia and Libya who reigned over certain areas and stamped their culture on the society.

The period of the 22nd Dynasty, which began around 945 B.C., was founded by King Sheshonq I. He was a Libyan descendant who had conquered Egypt during the ruling days of the 20th Dynasty. In this era, the local rulers were autonomous.

Dynasties 23 and 24 were poorly documented.

The Nubian ruler of the kingdom of Kush, King Piye (752-722 B.C.) founded Dynasty 25. Egypt was once again united and the culture flourished. But it wasn’t for long, as the Assyrians under Esarhaddon set out to invade the country in 667 B.C. The Assyrians did manage a successful invasion but had no long-term plans to remain in the region. They left Egypt in ruins and vulnerable to the imminent invasion.

664–30 B.C.—The Late and Hellenistic Period

Cambyses II of Persia attacked the defenseless Egypt at the Pelusium in 525 B.C. His approach was a rather ingenious one. Having insight into the religion of the Egyptian people, he had his army paint cats on their shields. This was because he knew that cats were believed to be the living representation of the goddess Bastet by the Egyptians. He also ordered for cats and other sacred animals to be driven before the army at Pelusium. Cambyses II was able to defeat the last kings of the Saite dynasty Psammetichus III (he was the son of Nechoa) at the battle of Battle of Pelusium. Egypt became a constituent of the Persian Empire.

Persian rulers respected the Egyptian religion and culture; leaders such as Darius (522-485 B.C.) upheld Egyptian cults, built and restored temples. Xerxes (486-465 B.C.), however, was a despotic leader who sparked rebellions that extended to the reign of his successors. In 404 B.C., one of these rebellions became a successful one. This triumph ushered in the last period of native Egyptian rule, Dynasties 28-30.

This period was abbreviated by another attack of Persia in the mid-fourth century. Under Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C., Persia was able to restore its power in Egypt. However, in less than a decade the army of Alexander the Great of Macedonia was able to defeat the Persian force and conquer Egypt in 332-331 B.C.

Alexander the Great Founding Alexandria, by Placido Costanz (1736-1737)

Alexander was never seen as a conqueror; rather he was seen as a liberator. He instituted the city of Alexandria before moving on his pursuit of Phoenicia and the whole of the Persian Empire.

After his death, Egypt was governed by a line of Macedonian kings—Alexander’s general Ptolemy being the first. Cleopatra VII was the last of the Ptolemaic rulers. Her defeat by the Octavian forces in the Battle of Actium on 2nd September, 30 B.C., led to Egypt’s annexation by the Roman Empire. As a Roman colony, Christianity became the predominant religion of Egypt and the people were forced to forsake their indigenous cults.

Following the six centuries of rule by the Romans, Egypt was invaded by the Arabs under Caliph Umar in 646 A.D. and Islam was brought to the nation.

In discussing Ancient Egypt’s fascinating history, the Historian Will Durant writes:

“The effect or remembrance of what Egypt accomplished at the very dawn of history has influence in every nation and every age. ‘It is even possible', as Faure has said, 'that Egypt, through the solidarity, the unity, and the disciplined variety of its artistic products, through the enormous duration and the sustained power of its effort, offers the spectacle of the greatest civilization that has yet appeared on the earth.' We shall do well to equal it.”

BONUS CHAPTER

Ten Little Known Facts About Ancient Egypt

The Mummy

One of the greatest relics of ancient Egypt happens to be the mummies they left behind. They are a priceless entity that says a lot about the earlier inhabitants of this world; their mental ability, their fears, dreams and much besides.

The world is incredibly grateful that they kept these ancient bodies in such conditions, but pity on those who had to mummify these bodies.

The process of mummifying a body is not just difficult, but also gut-wrenching.

They first take an iron hook and draw the brain out of the nostril. Then, they remove every organ, except for the heart, which is considered to be the seat of the soul, and place them in different jars which are called canopic jars.

Ancient Egyptians Weren’t So Fond Of Hair

As many ancient paintings suggest, Egyptians loved wigs, but underneath that wig they were actually bald. They weren’t so fond of hair, so much so that it was customary for them to shave it off as often as possible.

Admittedly, there are certain parts of bodily hair that need to be shaved off; it is not hygienic or attractive. But why the scalp, right? Well, granted that ancient Egyptians were quite brilliant, it’s only fair to say that they had a good reason for doing so. And scholars believe that it had much to do with hygiene—to avoid lice and fleas.

The Temperature of the Great Pyramid of Giza

No doubt that ancient Egyptians had a knack for math.

What displays their ingenuity in this area is the temperature level they created inside the pyramids, especially in the Great Pyramid of Giza.

Inside the Great Pyramid of Giza the temperature is constantly at 68˚. They created this artificial air conditioning in the middle of a merciless desert where the temperature can rise up to 115˚. Amazing craftsmanship, right?

Egyptians and Their Cats

Ancient Egyptians loved animals, but nothing was more cherished than their beloved cats. They were regarded as sacred creatures, as they represented the goddess Bastet.

A cat’s death was no less painful than the passing of a loved family member. In grief, the entire family would shave their eyebrows.

Egyptians also had cemetery for their cats. So when they died they would mummify their bodies and bury them along with a mummified mice and a bowl of milk, just in case they get hungry or thirsty in the afterlife. In 1888, about 80,000 cat mummies were found.

Killing cats was also seen as a morbid crime, one that resulted in a death penalty.

Ancient Egyptians Used Birth Control Pills

Yes, Egyptians embraced the idea of family planning by using quasi birth control pills. But their system was quite different and it might not have been one of their brightest creations.

To avoid pregnancy, they would mix honey, mud and crocodile manure and insert it inside a woman’s genitals before the evening of intercourse. Not a very pleasant medical treatment and there is no way of knowing it worked, but they did believe in it.

Use Of Moldy Bread To Treat Infections

In medicine, Egyptians have certainly made great advances. With little or no resources at their disposal, they did figure out ways of treating various maladies. And one was the way they treated infections with moldy bread.

But this was a medical treatment that was used more on peasants.

Test For The Pharaohs

Competency is something that a leader has to prove to his subjects at one point or another. And in ancient Egypt, after 30 years of ruling, a pharaoh had to run around a fixed course to prove that his fitness is well intact.

Dwarfism In Ancient Egypt

People born with dwarfism in ancient Egypt were never discriminated. In fact they were highly valued.

They were often hired for jobs that required high security, mostly as gold workers. But it wasn’t because Egyptians found them trustworthy, it was only because they thought that if they stole and tried running away, they could easily be spotted out and captured.

The First Peace Treaty In The World

Yes, Egyptians were the first in the world to negotiate and sign a peace accord. In 1259 B.C. the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II and the Hittite King Hattusili III signed a peace treaty, agreeing that in the event of foreign invasion they each would provide military aid.

The Egyptian-Hittite treaty ended the decade long feud between the two nations, and it became the world’s first peace accord. A copy of this relic is displayed at the entrance of the United Nations Security Council Chamber in New York.

Medical Specialization

To be productive or successful in any field of study one has to narrow down his or her focus only to that one specific area. We know this now - the Egyptians though, knew it thousands of years ago.

Egyptian doctors had specialized fields of study. They often focused on treating just one part of the human body. “Each physician is a healer of one disease and no more…. some of the eyes, some of the teeth, some of what pertains to the belly,” the historian and traveler, Herodotus wrote.

They even had names for these specialized doctors; for instance, proctologists in ancient Egypt were called ‘Shepherd of the anus”, and dentists were known as “Doctors of tooth.”

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