The God Delusion
Author: Richard Dawkins
Date: 2006-10-18T04:00:00+00:00
Keywords: Religion; General
Description: A preeminent scientist -- and the world's most prominent atheist -- asserts the irrationality of belief in God and the grievous harm religion has inflicted on society, from the Crusades to 9/11. With rigor and wit, Dawkins examines God in all his forms, from the sex-obsessed tyrant of the Old Testament to the more benign (but still illogical) Celestial Watchmaker favored by some Enlightenment thinkers. He eviscerates the major arguments for religion and demonstrates the supreme improbability of a supreme being. He shows how religion fuels war, foments bigotry, and abuses children, buttressing
Publisher: Mariner Books

Also by Richard Dawkins

The Selfish Gene

The Extended Phenotype

The Blind Watchmaker

River Out of Eden

Climbing Mount Improbable

Unweaving the Rainbow

A Devil's Chaplain

The Ancestor's Tale

THE GOD DELUSION

Richard Dawkins

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In Memoriam

Douglas Adams (1952-2001)

'Isn't it enough to see that a garden is beautiful without having to
believe that there are fairies at the bottom of it too?'

Contents

Preface

Chapter 1

A deeply religious non-believer 9

Deserved respect 11

Undeserved respect 20

Chapter 2

The God Hypothesis 29

Polytheism 32

Monotheism 37

Secularism, the Founding Fathers
and the religion of America 38

The poverty of agnosticism 46

NOMA 54

The Great Prayer Experiment 61

The Neville Chamberlain school
of evolutionists 66

Little green men 69

Chapter 3

Arguments for God's existence 75

Thomas Aquinas' 'proofs' 77

The ontological argument and other
a priori arguments 80

The argument from beauty 86

The argument from personal

'experience' 87

The argument from scripture 92

The argument from admired
religious scientists 97

Pascal's Wager 103

Bayesian arguments 105

Chapter 4 Why there almost certainly is
no God 111

The Ultimate Boeing 747 113

Natural selection as a
consciousness-raiser 114

Irreducible complexity 119

The worship of gaps 125

The anthropic principle: planetary
version 134

The anthropic principle: cosmological
version 141

An interlude at Cambridge 151

Chapter 5 The roots of religion 161

The Darwinian imperative 163

Direct advantages of religion 166

Group selection 169

Religion as a by-product of
something else 172

Psychologically primed for
religion 179

Tread softly, because you tread on
my memes 191

Cargo cults 202

Chapter 6 The roots of morality: why are
we good? 209

Does our moral sense have a

Darwinian origin? 214

A case study in the roots of
morality 222

If there is no God, why be good? 226

Chapter 7 The 'Good' Book and the changing
moral Zeitgeist 235

The Old Testament 237

Is the New Testament any better? 250

Love thy neighbour 254

The moral Zeitgeist 262

What about Hitler and Stalin?

Weren't they atheists? 272

Chapter 8 What's wrong with religion?

Why be so hostile? 279

Fundamentalism and the subversion
of science 282

The dark side of absolutism 286

Faith and homosexuality 289

Faith and the sanctity of human
life 291

The Great Beethoven Fallacy 298

How 'moderation' in faith fosters
fanaticism 301

Chapter 9 Childhood, abuse and the escape
from religion 309

Physical and mental abuse 315

In defence of children 325

An educational scandal 331

Consciousness-raising again 337

Religious education as a part of
literary culture 340

Chapter 10 A much needed gap? 345

Binker 347

Consolation 352

Inspiration 360

The mother of all burkas 362

Appendix: a partial list of friendly addresses, for
individuals needing support in escaping
from religion 375

Books cited or recommended 380

Notes 388

Index 400

Preface

As a child, my wife hated her school and wished she could leave.

Years later, when she was in her twenties, she disclosed this
unhappy fact to her parents, and her mother was aghast: 'But
darling, why didn't you come to us and tell us?' Lalla's reply is my
text for today: 'But I didn't know I could.'

I didn't know I could.

I suspect - well, I am sure - that there are lots of people out there
who have been brought up in some religion or other, are unhappy
in it, don't believe it, or are worried about the evils that are done in
its name; people who feel vague yearnings to leave their parents'

religion and wish they could, but just don't realize that leaving is an
option. If you are one of them, this book is for you. It is intended
to raise consciousness - raise consciousness to the fact that to be an
atheist is a realistic aspiration, and a brave and splendid one. You
can be an atheist who is happy, balanced, moral, and intellectually
fulfilled. That is the first of my consciousness-raising messages. I
also want to raise consciousness in three other ways, which I'll
come on to.

In January 2006 I presented a two-part television documentary on

British television (Channel Four) called Root of All Evil? From the
start, I didn't like the title. Religion is not the root of all evil, for
no one thing is the root of all anything. But I was delighted with the
advertisement that Channel Four put in the national newspapers.

It was a picture of the Manhattan skyline with the caption 'Imagine
a world without religion.' What was the connection? The twin
towers of the World Trade Center were conspicuously present.

Imagine, with John Lennon, a world with no religion. Imagine
no suicide bombers, no 9/11, no 7/7, no Crusades, no witch-hunts,
no Gunpowder Plot, no Indian partition, no Israeli/Palestinian
wars, no Serb/Croat/Muslim massacres, no persecution of Jews
as 'Christ-killers', no Northern Ireland 'troubles', no 'honour
killings', no shiny-suited bouffant-haired televangelists fleecing
gullible people of their money ('God wants you to give till it
hurts'). Imagine no Taliban to blow up ancient statues, no public

2 T 11 E G O D D E L U S I O N
beheadings of blasphemers, no flogging of female skin for the crime
of showing an inch of it. Incidentally, my colleague Desmond

Morris informs me that John Lennon's magnificent song is some-
times performed in America with the phrase 'and no religion too'

expurgated. One version even has the effrontery to change it to 'and
one religion too'.

Perhaps you feel that agnosticism is a reasonable position, but
that atheism is just as dogmatic as religious belief? If so, I hope

Chapter 2 will change your mind, by persuading you that 'the God

Hypothesis' is a scientific hypothesis about the universe, which
should be analysed as sceptically as any other. Perhaps you have
been taught that philosophers and theologians have put forward
good reasons to believe in God. If you think that, you might enjoy

Chapter 3 on 'Arguments for God's existence' - the arguments turn
out to be spectacularly weak. Maybe you think it is obvious that

God must exist, for how else could the world have come into being?

How else could there be life, in all its rich diversity, with every
species looking uncannily as though it had been 'designed'? If your
thoughts run along those lines, I hope you will gain enlightenment
from Chapter 4 on 'Why there almost certainly is no God'.

Far from pointing to a designer, the illusion of design in the living
world is explained with far greater economy and with devastating
elegance by Darwinian natural selection. And, while natural selection
itself is limited to explaining the living world, it raises our conscious-
ness to the likelihood of comparable explanatory 'cranes' that may
aid our understanding of the cosmos itself. The power of cranes such
as natural selection is the second of my four consciousness-raisers.

Perhaps you think there must be a god or gods because anthro-
pologists and historians report that believers dominate every
human culture. If you find that convincing, please refer to Chapter

5, on 'The roots of religion', which explains why belief is so
ubiquitous. Or do you think that religious belief is necessary in
order for us to have justifiable morals? Don't we need God, in order
to be good? Please read Chapters 6 and 7 to see why this is not so.

Do you still have a soft spot for religion as a good thing for the
world, even if you yourself have lost your faith? Chapter 8 will
invite you to think about ways in which religion is not such a good
thing for the world.

P R E F A C E 3

If you feel trapped in the religion of your upbringing, it would
be worth asking yourself how this came about. The answer is
usually some form of childhood indoctrination. If you are religious
at all it is overwhelmingly probable that your religion is that of
your parents. If you were born in Arkansas and you think

Christianity is true and Islam false, knowing full well that you
would think the opposite if you had been born in Afghanistan,
you are the victim of childhood indoctrination. Mutatis mutandis
if you were born in Afghanistan.

The whole matter of religion and childhood is the subject of

Chapter 9, which also includes my third consciousness-raiser. Just
as feminists wince when they hear 'he' rather than 'he or she', or

'man' rather than 'human', I want everybody to flinch whenever we
hear a phrase such as 'Catholic child' or 'Muslim child'. Speak of a

'child of Catholic parents' if you like; but if you hear anybody
speak of a 'Catholic child', stop them and politely point out that
children are too young to know where they stand on such issues,
just as they are too young to know where they stand on economics
or politics. Precisely because my purpose is consciousness-raising,

I shall not apologize for mentioning it here in the Preface as well
as in Chapter 9. You can't say it too often. I'll say it again. That
is not a Muslim child, but a child of Muslim parents. That child is
too young to know whether it is a Muslim or not. There is no
such thing as a Muslim child. There is no such thing as a Christian
child.

Chapters 1 and 10 top and tail the book by explaining, in their
different ways, how a proper understanding of the magnificence of
the real world, while never becoming a religion, can fill the
inspirational role that religion has historically - and inadequately -
usurped.

My fourth consciousness-raiser is atheist pride. Being an atheist
is nothing to be apologetic about. On the contrary, it is something
to be proud of, standing tall to face the far horizon, for atheism
nearly always indicates a healthy independence of mind and,
indeed, a healthy mind. There are many people who know, in their
heart of hearts, that they are atheists, but dare not admit it to
their families or even, in some cases, to themselves. Partly, this is
because the very word 'atheist' has been assiduously built up as a

4 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
terrible and frightening label. Chapter 9 quotes the comedian Julia

Sweeney's tragi-comic story of her parents' discovery, through
reading a newspaper, that she had become an atheist. Not believing
in God they could just about take, but an atheist! An ATHEIST}

(The mother's voice rose to a scream.)

I need to say something to American readers in particular at this
point, for the religiosity of today's America is something truly
remarkable. The lawyer Wendy Kaminer was exaggerating only
slightly when she remarked that making fun of religion is as risky
as burning a flag in an American Legion Hall.1 The status of
atheists in America today is on a par with that of homosexuals fifty
years ago. Now, after the Gay Pride movement, it is possible,
though still not very easy, for a homosexual to be elected to public
office. A Gallup poll taken in 1999 asked Americans whether they
would vote for an otherwise well-qualified person who was a woman

(95 per cent would), Roman Catholic (94 per cent would), Jew (92 per
cent), black (92 per cent), Mormon (79 per cent), homosexual (79
per cent) or atheist (49 per cent). Clearly we have a long way to go.

But atheists are a lot more numerous, especially among the educated
elite, than many realize. This was so even in the nineteenth century,
when John Stuart Mill was already able to say: 'The world would be
astonished if it knew how great a proportion of its brightest
ornaments, of those most distinguished even in popular estimation for
wisdom and virtue, are complete sceptics in religion.'

This must be even truer today and, indeed, I present evidence for
it in Chapter 3. The reason so many people don't notice atheists is
that many of us are reluctant to 'come out'. My dream is that this
book may help people to come out. Exactly as in the case of the gay
movement, the more people come out, the easier it will be for others
to join them. There may be a critical mass for the initiation of a
chain reaction.

American polls suggest that atheists and agnostics far out-
number religious Jews, and even outnumber most other particular
religious groups. Unlike Jews, however, who are notoriously one of
the most effective political lobbies in the United States, and unlike
evangelical Christians, who wield even greater political power,
atheists and agnostics are not organized and therefore exert almost
zero influence. Indeed, organizing atheists has been compared to

P R E F A C E 5
herding cats, because they tend to think independently and will not
conform to authority. But a good first step would be to build up a
critical mass of those willing to 'come out', thereby encouraging
others to do so. Even if they can't be herded, cats in sufficient
numbers can make a lot of noise and they cannot be ignored.

The word 'delusion' in my title has disquieted some psychiatrists
who regard it as a technical term, not to be bandied about. Three
of them wrote to me to propose a special technical term for
religious delusion: 'relusion'.2 Maybe it'll catch on. But for now I
am going to stick with 'delusion', and I need to justify my use of it.

The Penguin English Dictionary defines a delusion as 'a false belief
or impression'. Surprisingly, the illustrative quotation the diction-
ary gives is from Phillip E. Johnson: 'Darwinism is the story of
humanity's liberation from the delusion that its destiny is controlled
by a power higher than itself.' Can that be the same Phillip E.

Johnson who leads the creationist charge against Darwinism in

America today? Indeed it is, and the quotation is, as we might
guess, taken out of context. I hope the fact that I have stated as
much will be noted, since the same courtesy has not been extended
to me in numerous creationist quotations of my works, deliberately
and misleadingly taken out of context. Whatever Johnson's own
meaning, his sentence as it stands is one that I would be happy to
endorse. The dictionary supplied with Microsoft Word defines a
delusion as 'a persistent false belief held in the face of strong
contradictory evidence, especially as a symptom of psychiatric dis-
order'. The first part captures religious faith perfectly. As to
whether it is a symptom of a psychiatric disorder, I am inclined to
follow Robert M. Pirsig, author of Zen and the Art of Motorcycle

Maintenance, when he said, 'When one person suffers from a
delusion, it is called insanity. When many people suffer from
a delusion it is called Religion.'

If this book works as I intend, religious readers who open it will
be atheists when they put it down. What presumptuous optimism!

Of course, dyed-in-the-wool faith-heads are immune to argument,
their resistance built up over years of childhood indoctrination
using methods that took centuries to mature (whether by evolution
or design). Among the more effective immunological devices is a
dire warning to avoid even opening a book like this, which is surely

6 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
a work of Satan. But I believe there are plenty of open-minded
people out there: people whose childhood indoctrination was not
too insidious, or for other reasons didn't 'take', or whose native
intelligence is strong enough to overcome it. Such free spirits should
need only a little encouragement to break free of the vice of religion
altogether. At very least, I hope that nobody who reads this book
will be able to say, 'I didn't know I could.'

For help in the preparation of this book, I am grateful to many
friends and colleagues. I cannot mention them all, but they include
my literary agent John Brockman, and my editors, Sally Gaminara

(for Transworld) and Eamon Dolan (for Houghton Mifflin), both
of whom read the book with sensitivity and intelligent understand-
ing, and gave me a helpful mixture of criticism and advice. Their
whole-hearted and enthusiastic belief in the book was very en-
couraging to me. Gillian Somerscales has been an exemplary copy
editor, as constructive with her suggestions as she was meticulous
with her corrections. Others who criticized various drafts, and to
whom I am very grateful, are Jerry Coyne, J. Anderson Thomson,

R. Elisabeth Cornwell, Ursula Goodenough, Latha Menon and
especially Karen Owens, critic extraordinaire, whose acquaintance
with the stitching and unstitching of every draft of the book has
been almost as detailed as my own.

The book owes something (and vice versa) to the two-part
television documentary Root of All Evil?, which I presented on

British television (Channel Four) in January 2006. I am grateful to
all who were involved in the production, including Deborah Kidd,

Russell Barnes, Tim Cragg, Adam Prescod, Alan Clements and

Hamish Mykura. For permission to use quotations from the docu-
mentary I thank IWC Media and Channel Four. Root of All Evil?

achieved excellent ratings in Britain, and it has also been taken by
the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. It remains to be seen
whether any US television channel will dare to show it. *

This book has been developing in my mind for some years.

During that time, some of the ideas inevitably found their way into
lectures, for example my Tanner Lectures at Harvard, and articles
in newspapers and magazines. Readers of my regular column in

*Bootleg copies are being downloaded from numerous US websites.

Negotiations are under way for legitimate DVDs to be marketed. At the time of
going to press these negotiations are incomplete - updates will be posted at
www.richarddawkins.net.

P R E F A C E 7

Free Inquiry, especially, may find certain passages familiar. I am
grateful to Tom Flynn, the Editor of that admirable magazine, for
the stimulus he gave me when he commissioned me to become a
regular columnist. After a temporary hiatus during the finishing of
the book, I hope now to resume my column, and will no doubt use
it to respond to the aftermath of the book.

For a variety of reasons I am grateful to Dan Dennett, Marc

Hauser, Michael Stirrat, Sam Harris, Helen Fisher, Margaret

Downey, Ibn Warraq, Hermione Lee, Julia Sweeney, Dan Barker,

Josephine Welsh, Ian Baird and especially George Scales.

Nowadays, a book such as this is not complete until it becomes the
nucleus of a living website, a forum for supplementary materials,
reactions, discussions, questions and answers - who knows what
the future may bring? I hope that www.richarddawkins.net/, the
website of the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and

Science, will come to fill that role, and I am extremely grateful to

Josh Timonen for the artistry, professionalism and sheer hard work
that he is putting into it.

Above all, I thank my wife Lalla Ward, who has coaxed me
through all my hesitations and self-doubts, not just with moral
support and witty suggestions for improvement, but by reading the
entire book aloud to me, at two different stages in its development,
so I could apprehend very directly how it might seem to a reader
other than myself. I recommend the technique to other authors, but

I must warn that for best results the reader must be a professional
actor, with voice and ear sensitively tuned to the music of language.

CHAPTER 1

A deeply religious
non-believer

I don't try to imagine a personal God; it suffices to
stand in awe at the structure of the world, insofar as it
allows our inadequate senses to appreciate it.

ALBERT EINSTEIN

A D E E P L Y R E L I G I O U S N O N - B E L I E V E R 1 1

DESERVED RESPECT

The boy lay prone in the grass, his chin resting on his hands. He
suddenly found himself overwhelmed by a heightened awareness of
the tangled stems and roots, a forest in microcosm, a transfigured
world of ants and beetles and even - though he wouldn't have
known the details at the time - of soil bacteria by the billions,
silently and invisibly shoring up the economy of the micro-world.

Suddenly the micro-forest of the turf seemed to swell and become
one with the universe, and with the rapt mind of the boy contem-
plating it. He interpreted the experience in religious terms and it led
him eventually to the priesthood. He was ordained an Anglican
priest and became a chaplain at my school, a teacher of whom I was
fond. It is thanks to decent liberal clergymen like him that nobody
could ever claim that I had religion forced down my throat. *

In another time and place, that boy could have been me under
the stars, dazzled by Orion, Cassiopeia and Ursa Major, tearful
with the unheard music of the Milky Way, heady with the night
scents of frangipani and trumpet flowers in an African garden. Why
the same emotion should have led my chaplain in one direction and
me in the other is not an easy question to answer. A quasi-mystical
response to nature and the universe is common among scientists
and rationalists. It has no connection with supernatural belief. In
his boyhood at least, my chaplain was presumably not aware (nor
was I) of the closing lines of The Origin of Species - the famous

'entangled bank' passage, 'with birds singing on the bushes, with
various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the
damp earth'. Had he been, he would certainly have identified with
it and, instead of the priesthood, might have been led to Darwin's
view that all was 'produced by laws acting around us':

* Our sport during lessons was to sidetrack him away from scripture and towards
stirring tales of Fighter Command and the Few. He had done war
service in the RAF and it was with familiarity, and something of the affection that

I still retain for the Church of England (at least by comparison with the competi-
tion), that I later read John Betjeman's poem:

Our padre is an old sky pilot,

Severely now they've clipped his wings,

But still the flagstaff in the Rect'ry garden

Points to Higher Things . . .

1 2 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the
most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving,
namely, the production of the higher animals, directly
follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its
several powers, having been originally breathed into a few
forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone
cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so
simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most
wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.

Carl Sagan, in Pale Blue Dot, wrote:

How is it that hardly any major religion has looked at
science and concluded, 'This is better than we thought!

The Universe is much bigger than our prophets said,
grander, more subtle, more elegant'? Instead they say, 'No,
no, no! My god is a little god, and I want him to stay that
way.' A religion, old or new, that stressed the magnifi-
cence of the Universe as revealed by modern science might
be able to draw forth reserves of reverence and awe hardly
tapped by the conventional faiths.

All Sagan's books touch the nerve-endings of transcendent wonder
that religion monopolized in past centuries. My own books have
the same aspiration. Consequently I hear myself often described as
a deeply religious man. An American student wrote to me that she
had asked her professor whether he had a view about me. 'Sure,' he
replied. 'He's positive science is incompatible with religion, but
he waxes ecstatic about nature and the universe. To me, that is
religion!' But is 'religion' the right word? I don't think so.

The Nobel Prize-winning physicist (and atheist) Steven Weinberg
made the point as well as anybody, in Dreams of a Final

Theory:

Some people have views of God that are so broad and
flexible that it is inevitable that they will find God
wherever they look for him. One hears it said that 'God is
the ultimate' or 'God is our better nature' or 'God is the

A D E E P L Y R E L I G I O U S N O N - B E L I E V E R 1 3
universe.' Of course, like any other word, the word 'God'

can be given any meaning we like. If you want to say that

'God is energy,' then you can find God in a lump of
coal.

Weinberg is surely right that, if the word God is not to become
completely useless, it should be used in the way people have gener-
ally understood it: to denote a supernatural creator that is

'appropriate for us to worship'.

Much unfortunate confusion is caused by failure to distinguish
what can be called Einsteinian religion from supernatural religion.

Einstein sometimes invoked the name of God (and he is not the
only atheistic scientist to do so), inviting misunderstanding by
supernaturalists eager to misunderstand and claim so illustrious a
thinker as their own. The dramatic (or was it mischievous?) ending
of Stephen Hawking's A Brief History of Time, 'For then we should
know the mind of God', is notoriously misconstrued. It has led
people to believe, mistakenly of course, that Hawking is a religious
man. The cell biologist Ursula Goodenough, in The Sacred Depths
of Nature, sounds more religious than Hawking or Einstein. She
loves churches, mosques and temples, and numerous passages in
her book fairly beg to be taken out of context and used as
ammunition for supernatural religion. She goes so far as to call her-
self a 'Religious Naturalist'. Yet a careful reading of her book
shows that she is really as staunch an atheist as I am.

'Naturalist' is an ambiguous word. For me it conjures my child-
hood hero, Hugh Lofting's Doctor Dolittle (who, by the way, had
more than a touch of the 'philosopher' naturalist of HMS Beagle
about him). In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, naturalist
meant what it still means for most of us today: a student of the
natural world. Naturalists in this sense, from Gilbert White on,
have often been clergymen. Darwin himself was destined for the

Church as a young man, hoping that the leisurely life of a country
parson would enable him to pursue his passion for beetles. But
philosophers use 'naturalist' in a very different sense, as the
opposite of supernaturalist. Julian Baggini explains in Atheism: A

Very Short Introduction the meaning of an atheist's commitment to
naturalism: 'What most atheists do believe is that although there is

14 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
only one kind of stuff in the universe and it is physical, out of this
stuff come minds, beauty, emotions, moral values - in short the full
gamut of phenomena that gives richness to human life.'

Human thoughts and emotions emerge from exceedingly com-
plex interconnections of physical entities within the brain. An
atheist in this sense of philosophical naturalist is somebody who
believes there is nothing beyond the natural, physical world, no
supernatural creative intelligence lurking behind the observable
universe, no soul that outlasts the body and no miracles - except in
the sense of natural phenomena that we don't yet understand. If
there is something that appears to lie beyond the natural world as
it is now imperfectly understood, we hope eventually to understand
it and embrace it within the natural. As ever when we unweave a
rainbow, it will not become less wonderful.

Great scientists of our time who sound religious usually turn out
not to be so when you examine their beliefs more deeply. This is
certainly true of Einstein and Hawking. The present Astronomer

Royal and President of the Royal Society, Martin Rees, told me that
he goes to church as an 'unbelieving Anglican . . . out of loyalty to
the tribe'. He has no theistic beliefs, but shares the poetic
naturalism that the cosmos provokes in the other scientists I have
mentioned. In the course of a recently televised conversation, I
challenged my friend the obstetrician Robert Winston, a respected
pillar of British Jewry, to admit that his Judaism was of exactly this
character and that he didn't really believe in anything supernatural.

He came close to admitting it but shied at the last fence (to be fair,
he was supposed to be interviewing me, not the other way around).3

When I pressed him, he said he found that Judaism provided a good
discipline to help him structure his life and lead a good one.

Perhaps it does; but that, of course, has not the smallest bearing on
the truth value of any of its supernatural claims. There are many
intellectual atheists who proudly call themselves Jews and observe

Jewish rites, perhaps out of loyalty to an ancient tradition or to
murdered relatives, but also because of a confused and confusing
willingness to label as 'religion' the pantheistic reverence which
many of us share with its most distinguished exponent, Albert

Einstein. They may not believe but, to borrow Dan Dennett's
phrase, they 'believe in belief'.4

A D E E P L Y R E L I G I O U S N O N - B E L I E V E R 1 5

One of Einstein's most eagerly quoted remarks is 'Science
without religion is lame, religion without science is blind.' But

Einstein also said,

It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious
convictions, a lie which is being systematically repeated. I
do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied
this but have expressed it clearly. If something is in me
which can be called religious then it is the unbounded
admiration for the structure of the world so far as our
science can reveal it.

Does it seem that Einstein contradicted himself? That his words
can be cherry-picked for quotes to support both sides of an argu-
ment? No. By 'religion' Einstein meant something entirely different
from what is conventionally meant. As I continue to clarify the dis-
tinction between supernatural religion on the one hand and

Einsteinian religion on the other, bear in mind that I am calling only
supernatural gods delusional.

Here are some more quotations from Einstein, to give a flavour
of Einsteinian religion.

I am a deeply religious nonbeliever. This is a somewhat
new kind of religion.

I have never imputed to Nature a purpose or a goal, or
anything that could be understood as anthropomorphic.

What I see in Nature is a magnificent structure that we
can comprehend only very imperfectly, and that must fill
a thinking person with a feeling of humility. This is a
genuinely religious feeling that has nothing to do with
mysticism.

The idea of a personal God is quite alien to me and seems
even naive.

In greater numbers since his death, religious apologists under-
standably try to claim Einstein as one of their own. Some of his
religious contemporaries saw him very differently. In 1940 Einstein

16 T H E G O D D E L U S 1O N
wrote a famous paper justifying his statement 'I do not believe in a
personal God.' This and similar statements provoked a storm of
letters from the religiously orthodox, many of them alluding to

Einstein's Jewish origins. The extracts that follow are taken from

Max Jammer's book Einstein and Religion (which is also my main
source of quotations from Einstein himself on religious matters).

The Roman Catholic Bishop of Kansas City said: 'It is sad to see a
man, who comes from the race of the Old Testament and its teach-
ing, deny the great tradition of that race.' Other Catholic clergymen
chimed in: 'There is no other God but a personal God . . . Einstein
does not know what he is talking about. He is all wrong. Some men
think that because they have achieved a high degree of learning in
some field, they are qualified to express opinions in all.' The notion
that religion is a proper field, in which one might claim expertise,
is one that should not go unquestioned. That clergyman presum-
ably would not have deferred to the expertise of a claimed

'fairyologist' on the exact shape and colour of fairy wings. Both he
and the bishop thought that Einstein, being theologically untrained,
had misunderstood the nature of God. On the contrary, Einstein
understood very well exactly what he was denying.

An American Roman Catholic lawyer, working on behalf of an
ecumenical coalition, wrote to Einstein:

We deeply regret that you made your statement . . . in
which you ridicule the idea of a personal God. In the past
ten years nothing has been so calculated to make people
think that Hitler had some reason to expel the Jews from

Germany as your statement. Conceding your right to free
speech, I still say that your statement constitutes you as
one of the greatest sources of discord in America.

A New York rabbi said: 'Einstein is unquestionably a great
scientist, but his religious views are diametrically opposed to

Judaism.'

'But'? 'But'? Why not 'and'?

The president of a historical society in New Jersey wrote a letter
that so damningly exposes the weakness of the religious mind, it is
worth reading twice:

A D E E P L Y R E L I G I O U S N O N - B E L I E V E R 17

We respect your learning, Dr Einstein; but there is one
thing you do not seem to have learned: that God is a spirit
and cannot be found through the telescope or microscope,
no more than human thought or emotion can be found by
analyzing the brain. As everyone knows, religion is based
on Faith, not knowledge. Every thinking person, perhaps,
is assailed at times with religious doubt. My own faith has
wavered many a time. But I never told anyone of my
spiritual aberrations for two reasons: (1) I feared that I
might, by mere suggestion, disturb and damage the life
and hopes of some fellow being; (2) because I agree with
the writer who said, 'There is a mean streak in anyone
who will destroy another's faith.' . . . I hope, Dr Einstein,
that you were misquoted and that you will yet say some-
thing more pleasing to the vast number of the American
people who delight to do you honor.

What a devastatingly revealing letter! Every sentence drips with
intellectual and moral cowardice.

Less abject but more shocking was the letter from the Founder
of the Calvary Tabernacle Association in Oklahoma:

Professor Einstein, I believe that every Christian in

America will answer you, 'We will not give up our belief
in our God and his son Jesus Christ, but we invite you, if
you do not believe in the God of the people of this nation,
to go back where you came from.' I have done everything
in my power to be a blessing to Israel, and then you come
along and with one statement from your blasphemous
tongue, do more to hurt the cause of your people than all
the efforts of the Christians who love Israel can do to
stamp out anti-Semitism in our land. Professor Einstein,
every Christian in America will immediately reply to you,

'Take your crazy, fallacious theory of evolution and go
back to Germany where you came from, or stop trying to
break down the faith of a people who gave you a welcome
when you were forced to flee your native land.'

18 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N

The one thing all his theistic critics got right was that Einstein
was not one of them. He was repeatedly indignant at the suggestion
that he was a theist. So, was he a deist, like Voltaire and Diderot?

Or a pantheist, like Spinoza, whose philosophy he admired: 'I
believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly
harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with
fates and actions of human beings'?

Let's remind ourselves of the terminology. A theist believes in a
supernatural intelligence who, in addition to his main work of cre-
ating the universe in the first place, is still around to oversee and
influence the subsequent fate of his initial creation. In many theistic
belief systems, the deity is intimately involved in human affairs. He
answers prayers; forgives or punishes sins; intervenes in the world
by performing miracles; frets about good and bad deeds, and
knows when we do them (or even think of doing them). A deist,
too, believes in a supernatural intelligence, but one whose activities
were confined to setting up the laws that govern the universe in the
first place. The deist God never intervenes thereafter, and certainly
has no specific interest in human affairs. Pantheists don't believe in
a supernatural God at all, but use the word God as a non-
supernatural synonym for Nature, or for the Universe, or for the
lawfulness that governs its workings. Deists differ from theists in
that their God does not answer prayers, is not interested in sins or
confessions, does not read our thoughts and does not intervene
with capricious miracles. Deists differ from pantheists in that the
deist God is some kind of cosmic intelligence, rather than
the pantheist's metaphoric or poetic synonym for the laws of the
universe. Pantheism is sexed-up atheism. Deism is watered-down
theism.

There is every reason to think that famous Einsteinisms like

'God is subtle but he is not malicious' or 'He does not play dice' or

'Did God have a choice in creating the Universe?' are pantheistic,
not deistic, and certainly not theistic. 'God does not play dice'

should be translated as 'Randomness does not lie at the heart of all
things.' 'Did God have a choice in creating the Universe?' means

'Could the universe have begun in any other way?' Einstein was
using 'God' in a purely metaphorical, poetic sense. So is Stephen

Hawking, and so are most of those physicists who occasionally slip

A D E E P L Y R E L I G I O U S N O N - B E L I E V E R

19
into the language of religious metaphor. Paul Davies's The Mind of

God seems to hover somewhere between Einsteinian pantheism and
an obscure form of deism - for which he was rewarded with the

Templeton Prize (a very large sum of money given annually by
the Templeton Foundation, usually to a scientist who is prepared to
say something nice about religion).

Let me sum up Einsteinian religion in one more quotation from

Einstein himself: 'To sense that behind anything that can be experi-
enced there is a something that our mind cannot grasp and whose
beauty and sublimity reaches us only indirectly and as a feeble
reflection, this is religiousness. In this sense I am religious.' In this
sense I too am religious, with the reservation that 'cannot grasp'

does not have to mean 'forever ungraspable'. But I prefer not to
call myself religious because it is misleading. It is destructively mis-
leading because, for the vast majority of people, 'religion' implies

'supernatural'. Carl Sagan put it well: '. . . if by "God" one means
the set of physical laws that govern the universe, then clearly there
is such a God. This God is emotionally unsatisfying . . . it does not
make much sense to pray to the law of gravity.'

Amusingly, Sagan's last point was foreshadowed by the

Reverend Dr Fulton J. Sheen, a professor at the Catholic University
of America, as part of a fierce attack upon Einstein's 1940 dis-
avowal of a personal God. Sheen sarcastically asked whether
anyone would be prepared to lay down his life for the Milky Way.

He seemed to think he was making a point against Einstein, rather
than* for him, for he added: 'There is only one fault with his
cosmical religion: he put an extra letter in the word - the letter "s".'

There is nothing comical about Einstein's beliefs. Nevertheless, I
wish that physicists would refrain from using the word God in their
special metaphorical sense. The metaphorical or pantheistic God of
the physicists is light years away from the interventionist, miracle-
wreaking, thought-reading, sin-punishing, prayer-answering God
of the Bible, of priests, mullahs and rabbis, and of ordinary
language. Deliberately to confuse the two is, in my opinion, an act
of intellectual high treason.

20 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

UNDESERVED RESPECT

My title, The God Delusion, does not refer to the God of Einstein
and the other enlightened scientists of the previous section. That is
why I needed to get Einsteinian religion out of the way to begin
with: it has a proven capacity to confuse. In the rest of this book I
am talking only about supernatural gods, of which the most
familiar to the majority of my readers will be Yahweh, the God of
the Old Testament. I shall come to him in a moment. But before
leaving this preliminary chapter I need to deal with one more
matter that would otherwise bedevil the whole book. This time it is
a matter of etiquette. It is possible that religious readers will be
offended by what I have to say, and will find in these pages in-
sufficient respect for their own particular beliefs (if not the beliefs
that others treasure). It would be a shame if such offence prevented
them from reading on, so I want to sort it out here, at the outset.

A widespread assumption, which nearly everybody in our
society accepts - the non-religious included - is that religious faith
is especially vulnerable to offence and should be protected by an
abnormally thick wall of respect, in a different class from the
respect that any human being should pay to any other. Douglas

Adams put it so well, in an impromptu speech made in Cambridge
shortly before his death,5 that I never tire of sharing his words:

Religion . . . has certain ideas at the heart of it which we
call sacred or holy or whatever. What it means is, 'Here is
an idea or a notion that you're not allowed to say any-
thing bad about; you're just not. Why not? - because
you're not!' If somebody votes for a party that you don't
agree with, you're free to argue about it as much as you
like; everybody will have an argument but nobody feels
aggrieved by it. If somebody thinks taxes should go up or
down you are free to have an argument about it. But on
the other hand if somebody says 'I mustn't move a light
switch on a Saturday', you say, 'I respect that'.

Why should it be that it's perfectly legitimate to support
the Labour party or the Conservative party, Republicans
or Democrats, this model of economics versus that,

A D E E P L Y R E L 1 G I O U S N O N - B E L I E V E R 21

Macintosh instead of Windows - but to have an opinion
about how the Universe began, about who created the

Universe . .. no, that's holy? . .. We are used to not
challenging religious ideas but it's very interesting how
much of a furore Richard creates when he does it!

Everybody gets absolutely frantic about it because you're
not allowed to say these things. Yet when you look at it
rationally there is no reason why those ideas shouldn't be
as open to debate as any other, except that we have agreed
somehow between us that they shouldn't be.

Here's a particular example of our society's overweening respect
for religion, one that really matters. By far the easiest grounds for
gaining conscientious objector status in wartime are religious. You
can be a brilliant moral philosopher with a prizewinning doctoral
thesis expounding the evils of war, and still be given a hard time by
a draft board evaluating your claim to be a conscientious objector.

Yet if you can say that one or both of your parents is a Quaker you
sail through like a breeze, no matter how inarticulate and illiterate
you may be on the theory of pacifism or, indeed, Quakerism itself.

At the opposite end of the spectrum from pacifism, we have a
pusillanimous reluctance to use religious names for warring
factions. In Northern Ireland, Catholics and Protestants are
euphemized to 'Nationalists' and 'Loyalists' respectively. The very
word 'religions' is bowdlerized to 'communities', as in 'inter-
community warfare'. Iraq, as a consequence of the Anglo-American
invasion of 2003, degenerated into sectarian civil war between

Sunni and Shia Muslims. Clearly a religious conflict - yet in the

Independent of 20 May 2006 the front-page headline and first lead-
ing article both described it as 'ethnic cleansing'. 'Ethnic' in this
context is yet another euphemism. What we are seeing in Iraq is
religious cleansing. The original usage of 'ethnic cleansing' in the
former Yugoslavia is also arguably a euphemism for religious
cleansing, involving Orthodox Serbs, Catholic Croats and Muslim

Bosnians.6

I have previously drawn attention to the privileging of religion
in public discussions of ethics in the media and in government.7

Whenever a controversy arises over sexual or reproductive morals,

22 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N
you can bet that religious leaders from several different faith groups
will be prominently represented on influential committees, or on
panel discussions on radio or television. I'm not suggesting that we
should go out of our way to censor the views of these people. But
why does our society beat a path to their door, as though they had
some expertise comparable to that of, say, a moral philosopher, a
family lawyer or a doctor?

Here's another weird example of the privileging of religion. On

21 February 2006 the United States Supreme Court ruled that a
church in New Mexico should be exempt from the law, which
everybody else has to obey, against the taking of hallucinogenic
drugs.8 Faithful members of the Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao
do Vegetal believe that they can understand God only by drinking
hoasca tea, which contains the illegal hallucinogenic drug dimethyl-
tryptamine. Note that it is sufficient that they believe that the drug
enhances their understanding. They do not have to produce
evidence. Conversely, there is plenty of evidence that cannabis eases
the nausea and discomfort of cancer sufferers undergoing
chemotherapy. Yet the Supreme Court ruled, in 2005, that all
patients who use cannabis for medicinal purposes are vulnerable to
federal prosecution (even in the minority of states where such
specialist use is legalized). Religion, as ever, is the trump card.

Imagine members of an art appreciation society pleading in court
that they 'believe' they need a hallucinogenic drug in order to
enhance their understanding of Impressionist or Surrealist paint-
ings. Yet, when a church claims an equivalent need, it is backed by
the highest court in the land. Such is the power of religion as a
talisman.

Seventeen years ago, I was one of thirty-six writers and artists
commissioned by the magazine New Statesman to write in support
of the distinguished author Salman Rushdie,9 then under sentence
of death for writing a novel. Incensed by the 'sympathy' for Muslim

'hurt' and 'offence' expressed by Christian leaders and even some
secular opinion-formers, I drew the following parallel:

If the advocates of apartheid had their wits about them
they would claim - for all I know truthfully - that allow-
ing mixed races is against their religion. A good part of

A D E E P L Y R E L I G I O U S N O N - B E L I E V E R 2 3
the opposition would respectfully tiptoe away. And it is
no use claiming that this is an unfair parallel because
apartheid has no rational justification. The whole point of
religious faith, its strength and chief glory, is that it does
not depend on rational justification. The rest of us are
expected to defend our prejudices. But ask a religious
person to justify their faith and you infringe 'religious
liberty'.

Little did I know that something pretty similar would come to
pass in the twenty-first century. The Los Angeles Times (10 April

2006) reported that numerous Christian groups on campuses
around the United States were suing their universities for enforcing
anti-discrimination rules, including prohibitions against harassing
or abusing homosexuals. As a typical example, in 2004 James

Nixon, a twelve-year-old boy in Ohio, won the right in court to
wear a T-shirt to school bearing the words 'Homosexuality is a sin,

Islam is a lie, abortion is murder. Some issues are just black and
white!'10 The school told him not to wear the T-shirt - and the boy's
parents sued the school. The parents might have had a conscionable
case if they had based it on the First Amendment's guarantee of
freedom of speech. But they didn't: indeed, they couldn't, because
free speech is deemed not to include 'hate speech'. But hate only has
to prove it is religious, and it no longer counts as hate. So, instead
of freedom of speech, the Nixons' lawyers appealed to the con-
stitutional right to freedom of religion. Their victorious lawsuit was
supported by the Alliance Defense Fund of Arizona, whose business
it is to 'press the legal battle for religious freedom'.

The Reverend Rick Scarborough, supporting the wave of similar

Christian lawsuits brought to establish religion as a legal justifi-
cation for discrimination against homosexuals and other groups,
has named it the civil rights struggle of the twenty-first century:

'Christians are going to have to take a stand for the right to be

Christian.'11 Once again, if such people took their stand on the right
to free speech, one might reluctantly sympathize. But that isn't what
it is about. The legal case in favour of discrimination against
homosexuals is being mounted as a counter-suit against alleged
religious discrimination! And the law seems to respect this. You

24 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N
can't get away with saying, 'If you try to stop me from insulting
homosexuals it violates my freedom of prejudice.' But you can get
away with saying, 'It violates my freedom of religion.' What, when
you think about it, is the difference? Yet again, religion trumps all.

I'll end the chapter with a particular case study, which tellingly
illuminates society's exaggerated respect for religion, over and
above ordinary human respect. The case flared up in February 2006

- a ludicrous episode, which veered wildly between the extremes of
comedy and tragedy. The previous September, the Danish news-
paper Jyllands-Posten published twelve cartoons depicting the
prophet Muhammad. Over the next three months, indignation was
carefully and systematically nurtured throughout the Islamic world
by a small group of Muslims living in Denmark, led by two imams
who had been granted sanctuary there.12 In late 2005 these malev-
olent exiles travelled from Denmark to Egypt bearing a dossier,
which was copied and circulated from there to the whole Islamic
world, including, importantly, Indonesia. The dossier contained
falsehoods about alleged maltreatment of Muslims in Denmark,
and the tendentious lie that Jyllands-Posten was a government-run
newspaper. It also contained the twelve cartoons which, crucially,
the imams had supplemented with three additional images whose
origin was mysterious but which certainly had no connection with

Denmark. Unlike the original twelve, these three add-ons were
genuinely offensive - or would have been if they had, as the zealous
propagandists alleged, depicted Muhammad. A particularly
damaging one of these three was not a cartoon at all but a faxed
photograph of a bearded man wearing a fake pig's snout held on
with elastic. It has subsequently turned out that this was an

Associated Press photograph of a Frenchman entered for a pig-
squealing contest at a country fair in France.13 The photograph had
no connection whatsoever with the prophet Muhammad, no con-
nection with Islam, and no connection with Denmark. But the

Muslim activists, on their mischief-stirring hike to Cairo, implied
all three connections .. . with predictable results.

The carefully cultivated 'hurt' and 'offence' was brought to an
explosive head five months after the twelve cartoons were
originally published. Demonstrators in Pakistan and Indonesia
burned Danish flags (where did they get them from?) and hysterical

A D E E P L Y R E L I G I O U S N O N - B E L I E V E R 2 5
demands were made for the Danish government to apologize.

(Apologize for what? They didn't draw the cartoons, or publish
them. Danes just live in a country with a free press, something that
people in many Islamic countries might have a hard time under-
standing.) Newspapers in Norway, Germany, France and even
the United States (but, conspicuously, not Britain) reprinted the
cartoons in gestures of solidarity with Jyllands-Posten, which
added fuel to the flames. Embassies and consulates were trashed,

Danish goods were boycotted, Danish citizens and, indeed,

Westerners generally, were physically threatened; Christian
churches in Pakistan, with no Danish or European connections at
all, were burned. Nine people were killed when Libyan rioters
attacked and burned the Italian consulate in Benghazi. As

Germaine Greer wrote, what these people really love and do best is
pandemonium.14

A bounty of $1 million was placed on the head of 'the Danish
cartoonist' by a Pakistani imam - who was apparently unaware
that there were twelve different Danish cartoonists, and almost
certainly unaware that the three most offensive pictures had never
appeared in Denmark at all (and, by the way, where was that
million going to come from?). In Nigeria, Muslim protesters against
the Danish cartoons burned down several Christian churches, and
used machetes to attack and kill (black Nigerian) Christians in the
streets. One Christian was put inside a rubber tyre, doused with
petrol and set alight. Demonstrators were photographed in Britain
bearing banners saying 'Slay those who insult Islam', 'Butcher those
who mock Islam', 'Europe you will pay: Demolition is on its way'

and, apparently without irony, 'Behead those who say Islam is a
violent religion'.

In the aftermath of all this, the journalist Andrew Mueller inter-
viewed Britain's leading 'moderate' Muslim, Sir Iqbal Sacranie.15

Moderate he may be by today's Islamic standards, but in Andrew

Mueller's account he still stands by the remark he made when

Salman Rushdie was condemned to death for writing a novel:

'Death is perhaps too easy for him' - a remark that sets him in igno-
minious contrast to his courageous predecessor as Britain's most
influential Muslim, the late Dr Zaki Badawi, who offered Salman

Rushdie sanctuary in his own home. Sacranie told Mueller how

26 T H E G O D D E I. U S I O N
concerned he was about the Danish cartoons. Mueller was con-
cerned too, but for a different reason: 'I am concerned that the
ridiculous, disproportionate reaction to some unfunny sketches in an
obscure Scandinavian newspaper may confirm t h a t . . . Islam and the
west are fundamentally irreconcilable.' Sacranie, on the other hand,
praised British newspapers for not reprinting the cartoons, to which

Mueller voiced the suspicion of most of the nation that 'the restraint
of British newspapers derived less from sensitivity to Muslim discon-
tent than it did from a desire not to have their windows broken'.

Sacranie explained that 'The person of the Prophet, peace be
upon him, is revered so profoundly in the Muslim world, with a
love and affection that cannot be explained in words. It goes
beyond your parents, your loved ones, your children. That is part
of the faith. There is also an Islamic teaching that one does not
depict the Prophet.' This rather assumes, as Mueller observed,
that the values of Islam trump anyone else's - which is
what any follower of Islam does assume, just as any
follower of any religion believes that theirs is the sole way,
truth and light. If people wish to love a 7th century
preacher more than their own families, that's up to them,
but nobody else is obliged to take it seriously . ..

Except that if you don't take it seriously and accord it proper
respect you are physically threatened, on a scale that no other
religion has aspired to since the Middle Ages. One can't help
wondering why such violence is necessary, given that, as Mueller
notes: 'If any of you clowns are right about anything, the
cartoonists are going to hell anyway - won't that do? In the mean-
time, if you want to get excited about affronts to Muslims, read the

Amnesty International reports on Syria and Saudi Arabia.'

Many people have noted the contrast between the hysterical

'hurt' professed by Muslims and the readiness with which Arab
media publish stereotypical anti-Jewish cartoons. At a demon-
stration in Pakistan against the Danish cartoons, a woman in a
black burka was photographed carrying a banner reading 'God

Bless Hitler'.

In response to all this frenzied pandemonium, decent liberal

A D E E P L Y R E L I G I O U S N O N - B E L I E V E R 2 7
newspapers deplored the violence and made token noises about free
speech. But at the same time they expressed 'respect' and

'sympathy' for the deep 'offence' and 'hurt' that Muslims had

'suffered'. The 'hurt' and 'suffering' consisted, remember, not in
any person enduring violence or real pain of any kind: nothing
more than a few daubs of printing ink in a newspaper that nobody
outside Denmark would ever have heard of but for a deliberate
campaign of incitement to mayhem.

I am not in favour of offending or hurting anyone just for the
sake of it. But I am intrigued and mystified by the disproportionate
privileging of religion in our otherwise secular societies. All
politicians must get used to disrespectful cartoons of their faces,
and nobody riots in their defence. What is so special about religion
that we grant it such uniquely privileged respect? As H. L. Mencken
said: 'We must respect the other fellow's religion, but only in the
sense and to the extent that we respect his theory that his wife is
beautiful and his children smart.'

It is in the light of the unparalleled presumption of respect for
religion that I make my own disclaimer for this book. I shall not go
out of my way to offend, but nor shall I don kid gloves to handle
religion any more gently than I would handle anything else.

CHAPTER 2

The God

Hypothesis

The religion of one age is the literary
entertainment of the next.

RALPH WALDO EMERSON

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 3 1

The God of the Old Testament is arguably the most unpleasant
character in all fiction: jealous and proud of it; a petty, unjust,
unforgiving control-freak; a vindictive, bloodthirsty ethnic cleanser;
a misogynistic, homophobic, racist, infanticidal, genocidal, fili-
cidal, pestilential, megalomaniacal, sadomasochistic, capriciously
malevolent bully. Those of us schooled from infancy in his ways can
become desensitized to their horror. A naif blessed with the
perspective of innocence has a clearer perception. Winston

Churchill's son Randolph somehow contrived to remain ignorant of
scripture until Evelyn Waugh and a brother officer, in a vain
attempt to keep Churchill quiet when they were posted together
during the war, bet him he couldn't read the entire Bible in a fort-
night: 'Unhappily it has not had the result we hoped. He has never
read any of it before and is hideously excited; keeps reading
quotations aloud "I say I bet you didn't know this came in the

Bible . . . " or merely slapping his side & chortling "God, isn't God
a shit!"'16 Thomas Jefferson - better read - was of a similar
opinion: 'The Christian God is a being of terrific character - cruel,
vindictive, capricious and unjust.'

It is unfair to attack such an easy target. The God Hypothesis
should not stand or fall with its most unlovely instantiation,

Yahweh, nor his insipidly opposite Christian face, 'Gentle Jesus
meek and mild'. (To be fair, this milksop persona owes more to his

Victorian followers than to Jesus himself. Could anything be more
mawkishly nauseating than Mrs C. F. Alexander's 'Christian
children all must be / Mild, obedient, good as he'?) I am not attack-
ing the particular qualities of Yahweh, or Jesus, or Allah, or any
other specific god such as Baal, Zeus or Wotan. Instead I shall
define the God Hypothesis more defensibly: there exists a super-
human, supernatural intelligence who deliberately designed and
created the universe and everything in it, including us. This book
will advocate an alternative view: any creative intelligence, of
sufficient complexity to design anything, comes into existence only
as the end product of an extended process of gradual evolution.

Creative intelligences, being evolved, necessarily arrive late in the
universe, and therefore cannot be responsible for designing it. God,
in the sense defined, is a delusion; and, as later chapters will show,
a pernicious delusion.

32 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N

Not surprisingly, since it is founded on local traditions of private
revelation rather than evidence, the God Hypothesis comes in many
versions. Historians of religion recognize a progression from
primitive tribal animisms, through polytheisms such as those of the

Greeks, Romans and Norsemen, to monotheisms such as Judaism
and its derivatives, Christianity and Islam.

POLYTHEISM

It is not clear why the change from polytheism to monotheism
should be assumed to be a self-evidently progressive improvement.

But it widely is - an assumption that provoked Ibn Warraq (author
of Why I Am Not a Muslim) wittily to conjecture that monotheism
is in its turn doomed to subtract one more god and become
atheism. The Catholic Encyclopedia dismisses polytheism and
atheism in the same insouciant breath: 'Formal dogmatic atheism is
self-refuting, and has never de facto won the reasoned assent of any
considerable number of men. Nor can polytheism, however easily it
may take hold of the popular imagination, ever satisfy the mind of
a philosopher.'17

Monotheistic chauvinism was until recently written into the charity
law of both England and Scotland, discriminating against polytheistic
religions in granting tax-exempt status, while allowing an easy ride to
charities whose object was to promote monotheistic religion, sparing
them the rigorous vetting quite properly required of secular charities.

It was my ambition to persuade a member of Britain's respected

Hindu community to come forward and bring a civil action to test this
snobbish discrimination against polytheism.

Far better, of course, would be to abandon the promotion of
religion altogether as grounds for charitable status. The benefits
of this to society would be great, especially in the United States,
where the sums of tax-free money sucked in by churches, and
polishing the heels of already well-heeled televangelists, reach lev-
els that could fairly be described as obscene. The aptly named Oral

Roberts once told his television audience that God would kill him
unless they gave him $8 million. Almost unbelievably, it worked.

T H E G O D H Y P O T II E S I S 33

Tax-free! Roberts himself is still going strong, as is 'Oral Roberts

University' of Tulsa, Oklahoma. Its buildings, valued at $250 mil-
lion, were directly commissioned by God himself in these words:

'Raise up your students to hear My voice, to go where My light is
dim, where My voice is heard small, and My healing power is not
known, even to the uttermost bounds of the Earth. Their work will
exceed yours, and in this I am well pleased.'

On reflection, my imagined Hindu litigator would have been as
likely to play the 'If you can't beat them join them' card. His
polytheism isn't really polytheism but monotheism in disguise.

There is only one God - Lord Brahma the creator, Lord Vishnu the
preserver, Lord Shiva the destroyer, the goddesses Saraswati, Laxmi
and Parvati (wives of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva), Lord Ganesh the
elephant god, and hundreds of others, all are just different mani-
festations or incarnations of the one God.

Christians should warm to such sophistry. Rivers of medieval
ink, not to mention blood, have been squandered over the 'mystery'

of the Trinity, and in suppressing deviations such as the Arian
heresy. Arius of Alexandria, in the fourth century AD, denied that

Jesus was consubstantial (i.e. of the same substance or essence) with

God. What on earth could that possibly mean, you are probably
asking? Substance? What 'substance'? What exactly do you mean
by 'essence'? 'Very little' seems the only reasonable reply. Yet the
controversy split Christendom down the middle for a century, and
the Emperor Constantine ordered that all copies of Arius's book
should be burned. Splitting Christendom by splitting hairs - such
has ever been the way of theology.

Do we have one God in three parts, or three Gods in one? The

Catholic Encyclopedia clears up the matter for us, in a masterpiece
of theological close reasoning:

In the unity of the Godhead there are three Persons, the

Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, these Three Persons
being truly distinct one from another. Thus, in the words
of the Athanasian Creed: 'the Father is God, the Son is

God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not
three Gods but one God.'

34 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N

As if that were not clear enough, the Encyclopedia quotes the third-
century theologian St Gregory the Miracle Worker:

There is therefore nothing created, nothing subject to
another in the Trinity: nor is there anything that has been
added as though it once had not existed, but had entered
afterwards: therefore the Father has never been without
the Son, nor the Son without the Spirit: and this same

Trinity is immutable and unalterable forever.

Whatever miracles may have earned St Gregory his nickname, they
were not miracles of honest lucidity. His words convey the
characteristically obscurantist flavour of theology, which - unlike
science or most other branches of human scholarship - has not
moved on in eighteen centuries. Thomas Jefferson, as so often, got
it right when he said, 'Ridicule is the only weapon which can be
used against unintelligible propositions. Ideas must be distinct
before reason can act upon them; and no man ever had a distinct
idea of the trinity. It is the mere Abracadabra of the mountebanks
calling themselves the priests of Jesus.'

The other thing I cannot help remarking upon is the over-
weening confidence with which the religious assert minute details
for which they neither have, nor could have, any evidence. Perhaps
it is the very fact that there is no evidence to support theological
opinions, either way, that fosters the characteristic draconian
hostility towards those of slightly different opinion, especially, as it
happens, in this very field of Trinitarianism.

Jefferson heaped ridicule on the doctrine that, as he put it,

'There are three Gods', in his critique of Calvinism. But it is
especially the Roman Catholic branch of Christianity that pushes
its recurrent flirtation with polytheism towards runaway inflation.

The Trinity is (are?) joined by Mary, 'Queen of Heaven', a goddess
in all but name, who surely runs God himself a close second as a
target of prayers. The pantheon is further swollen by an army of
saints, whose intercessory power makes them, if not demigods, well
worth approaching on their own specialist subjects. The Catholic

Community Forum helpfully lists 5,120 saints,18 together with their
areas of expertise, which include abdominal pains, abuse victims,

T II E G O D H Y P O T H E S 1 S 35
anorexia, arms dealers, blacksmiths, broken bones, bomb
technicians and bowel disorders, to venture no further than the Bs.

And we mustn't forget the four Choirs of Angelic Hosts, arrayed in
nine orders: Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones, Dominions, Virtues,

Powers, Principalities, Archangels (heads of all hosts), and just
plain old Angels, including our closest friends, the ever-watchful

Guardian Angels. What impresses me about Catholic mythology is
partly its tasteless kitsch but mostly the airy nonchalance with
which these people make up the details as they go along. It is just
shamelessly invented.

Pope John Paul II created more saints than all his predecessors
of the past several centuries put together, and he had a special
affinity with the Virgin Mary. His polytheistic hankerings were
dramatically demonstrated in 1981 when he suffered an assassin-
ation attempt in Rome, and attributed his survival to intervention
by Our Lady of Fatima: 'A maternal hand guided the bullet.' One
cannot help wondering why she didn't guide it to miss him
altogether. Others might think the team of surgeons who operated
on him for six hours deserved at least a share of the credit; but per-
haps their hands, too, were maternally guided. The relevant point
is that it wasn't just Our Lady who, in the Pope's opinion, guided
the bullet, but specifically Our Lady of Fatima. Presumably Our

Lady of Lourdes, Our Lady of Guadalupe, Our Lady of

Medjugorje, Our Lady of Akita, Our Lady of Zeitoun, Our Lady of

Garabandal and Our Lady of Knock were busy on other errands at
the time.

How did the Greeks, the Romans and the Vikings cope with
such polytheological conundrums? Was Venus just another name
for Aphrodite, or were they two distinct goddesses of love? Was

Thor with his hammer a manifestation of Wotan, or a separate
god? Who cares? Life is too short to bother with the distinction
between one figment of the imagination and many. Having gestured
towards polytheism to cover myself against a charge of neglect, I
shall say no more about it. For brevity I shall refer to all deities,
whether poly- or monotheistic, as simply 'God'. I am also conscious
that the Abrahamic God is (to put it mildly) aggressively male, and
this too I shall accept as a convention in my use of pronouns. More
sophisticated theologians proclaim the sexlessness of God, while

36 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
some feminist theologians seek to redress historic injustices by
designating her female. But what, after all, is the difference between
a non-existent female and a non-existent male? I suppose that, in
the ditzily unreal intersection of theology and feminism, existence
might indeed be a less salient attribute than gender.

I am aware that critics of religion can be attacked for failing to
credit the fertile diversity of traditions and world-views that have
been called religious. Anthropologically informed works, from Sir

James Frazer's Golden Bough to Pascal Boyer's Religion Explained
or Scott Atran's In Gods We Trust, fascinatingly document the
bizarre phenomenology of superstition and ritual. Read such books
and marvel at the richness of human gullibility.

But that is not the way of this book. I decry supernaturalism in
all its forms, and the most effective way to proceed will be to con-
centrate on the form most likely to be familiar to my readers - the
form that impinges most threateningly on all our societies. Most of
my readers will have been reared in one or another of today's three

'great' monotheistic religions (four if you count Mormonism), all of
which trace themselves back to the mythological patriarch

Abraham, and it will be convenient to keep this family of traditions
in mind throughout the rest of the book.

This is as good a moment as any to forestall an inevitable retort
to the book, one that would otherwise - as sure as night follows
day - turn up in a review: 'The God that Dawkins doesn't believe
in is a God that I don't believe in either. I don't believe in an old
man in the sky with a long white beard.' That old man is an
irrelevant distraction and his beard is as tedious as it is long.

Indeed, the distraction is worse than irrelevant. Its very silliness is
calculated to distract attention from the fact that what the speaker
really believes is not a whole lot less silly. I know you don't believe
in an old bearded man sitting on a cloud, so let's not waste any
more time on that. I am not attacking any particular version of God
or gods. I am attacking God, all gods, anything and everything
supernatural, wherever and whenever they have been or will be
invented.

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 37

MONOTHEISM

The great unmentionable evil at the center of our
culture is monotheism. From a barbaric Bronze Age
text known as the Old Testament, three anti-human
religions have evolved - Judaism, Christianity, and

Islam. These are sky-god religions. They are, literally,
patriarchal - God is the Omnipotent Father - hence
the loathing of women for 2,000 years in those
countries afflicted by the sky-god and his earthly male
delegates.

G O R E V I D A L

The oldest of the three Abrahamic religions, and the clear ancestor
of the other two, is Judaism: originally a tribal cult of a single
fiercely unpleasant God, morbidly obsessed with sexual
restrictions, with the smell of charred flesh, with his own
superiority over rival gods and with the exclusiveness of his chosen
desert tribe. During the Roman occupation of Palestine,

Christianity was founded by Paul of Tarsus as a less ruthlessly
monotheistic sect of Judaism and a less exclusive one, which
looked outwards from the Jews to the rest of the world. Several
centuries later, Muhammad and his followers reverted to the
uncompromising monotheism of the Jewish original, but not its
exclusiveness, and founded Islam upon a new holy book, the Koran
or Qur'an, adding a powerful ideology of military conquest to
spread the faith. Christianity, too, was spread by the sword,
wielded first by Roman hands after the Emperor Constantine
raised it from eccentric cult to official religion, then by the

Crusaders, and later by the conquistadores and other European
invaders and colonists, with missionary accompaniment. For most
of my purposes, all three Abrahamic religions can be treated as
indistinguishable. Unless otherwise stated, I shall have Christianity
mostly in mind, but only because it is the version with which

I happen to be most familiar. For my purposes the differences
matter less than the similarities. And I shall not be concerned
at all with other religions such as Buddhism or Confucianism.

Indeed, there is something to be said for treating these not as

3 8 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
religions at all but as ethical systems or philosophies of life.

The simple definition of the God Hypothesis with which I began
has to be substantially fleshed out if it is to accommodate the

Abrahamic God. He not only created the universe; he is a personal

God dwelling within it, or perhaps outside it (whatever that might
mean), possessing the unpleasantly human qualities to which I have
alluded.

Personal qualities, whether pleasant or unpleasant, form no part
of the deist god of Voltaire and Thomas Paine. Compared with the

Old Testament's psychotic delinquent, the deist God of the
eighteenth-century Enlightenment is an altogether grander being:

worthy of his cosmic creation, loftily unconcerned with human
affairs, sublimely aloof from our private thoughts and hopes, caring
nothing for our messy sins or mumbled contritions. The deist God
is a physicist to end all physics, the alpha and omega of mathe-
maticians, the apotheosis of designers; a hyper-engineer who set up
the laws and constants of the universe, fine-tuned them with
exquisite precision and foreknowledge, detonated what we would
now call the hot big bang, retired and was never heard from again.

In times of stronger faith, deists have been reviled as indistin-
guishable from atheists. Susan Jacoby, in Freethinkers: A History of

American Secularism, lists a choice selection of the epithets hurled
at poor Tom Paine: 'Juclas, reptile, hog, mad dog, souse, louse,
archbeast, brute, liar, and of course infidel'. Paine died in penury,
abandoned (with the honourable exception of Jefferson) by
political former friends embarrassed by his anti-Christian views.

Nowadays, the ground has shifted so far that deists are more likely
to be contrasted with atheists and lumped with theists. They do,
after all, believe in a supreme intelligence who created the universe.

SECULARISM, THE FOUNDING FATHERS AND

THE RELIGION OF AMERICA

It is conventional to assume that the Founding Fathers of the

American Republic were deists. No doubt many of them were,

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 3 9
although it has been argued that the greatest of them might have
been atheists. Certainly their writings on religion in their own time
leave me in no doubt that most of them would have been atheists
in ours. But whatever their individual religious views in their own
time, the one thing they collectively were is secularists, and this is
the topic to which I turn in this section, beginning with a - perhaps
surprising - quotation from Senator Barry Goldwater in 1981,
clearly showing how staunchly that presidential candidate and hero
of American conservatism upheld the secular tradition of the

Republic's foundation:

There is no position on which people are so immovable as
their religious beliefs. There is no more powerful ally one
can claim in a debate than Jesus Christ, or God, or Allah,
or whatever one calls this supreme being. But like any
powerful weapon, the use of God's name on one's behalf
should be used sparingly. The religious factions that are
growing throughout our land are not using their religious
clout with wisdom. They are trying to force government
leaders into following their position 100 percent. If you
disagree with these religious groups on a particular moral
issue, they complain, they threaten you with a loss of
money or votes or both. I'm frankly sick and tired of the
political preachers across this country telling me as a
citizen that if I want to be a moral person, I must believe
in A, B, C, and D. Just who do they think they are? And
from where do they presume to claim the right to dictate
their moral beliefs to me? And l a m even more angry as a
legislator who must endure the threats of every religious
group who thinks it has some God-granted right to
control my vote on every roll call in the Senate. I am
warning them today: I will fight them every step of the
way if they try to dictate their moral convictions to all

Americans in the name of conservatism.19

The religious views of the Founding Fathers are of great interest
to propagandists of today's American right, anxious to push their

40 T H E G O D D E I. U S I O N
version of history. Contrary to their view, the fact that the United

States was not founded as a Christian nation was early stated in the
terms of a treaty with Tripoli, drafted in 1796 under George

Washington and signed by John Adams in 1797:

As the Government of the United States of America is not,
in any sense, founded on the Christian religion; as it has
in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion,
or tranquillity, of Musselmen; and as the said States never
have entered into any war or act of hostility against any

Mehomitan nation, it is declared by the parties that no
pretext arising from religious opinions shall ever produce
an interruption of the harmony existing between the two
countries.

The opening words of this quotation would cause uproar in today's

Washington ascendancy. Yet Ed Buckner has convincingly demon-
strated that they caused no dissent at the time,20 among either
politicians or public.

The paradox has often been noted that the United States,
founded in secularism, is now the most religiose country in

Christendom, while England, with an established church headed by
its constitutional monarch, is among the least. I am continually
asked why this is, and I do not know. I suppose it is possible that

England has wearied of religion after an appalling history of inter-
faith violence, with Protestants and Catholics alternately gaining
the upper hand and systematically murdering the other lot. Another
suggestion stems from the observation that America is a nation of
immigrants. A colleague points out to me that immigrants,
uprooted from the stability and comfort of an extended family in

Europe, could well have embraced a church as a kind of kin-
substitute on alien soil. It is an interesting idea, worth researching
further. There is no doubt that many Americans see their own local
church as an important unit of identity, which does indeed have
some of the attributes of an extended family.

Yet another hypothesis is that the religiosity of America stems
paradoxically from the secularism of its constitution. Precisely
because America is legally secular, religion has become free

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 4 1
enterprise. Rival churches compete for congregations - not least for
the fat tithes that they bring - and the competition is waged with
all the aggressive hard-sell techniques of the marketplace. What
works for soap flakes works for God, and the result is something
approaching religious mania among today's less educated classes. In

England, by contrast, religion under the aegis of the established
church has become little more than a pleasant social pastime,
scarcely recognizable as religious at all. This English tradition is
nicely expressed by Giles Fraser, an Anglican vicar who doubles as
a philosophy tutor at Oxford, writing in the Guardian. Fraser's
article is subtitled 'The establishment of the Church of England
took God out of religion, but there are risks in a more vigorous
approach to faith':

There was a time when the country vicar was a staple of
the English dramatis personae. This tea-drinking, gentle
eccentric, with his polished shoes and kindly manners,
represented a type of religion that didn't make non-
religious people uncomfortable. He wouldn't break into
an existential sweat or press you against a wall to ask if
you were saved, still less launch crusades from the pulpit
or plant roadside bombs in the name of some higher
power.21

(Shades of Betjeman's 'Our Padre', which I quoted at the beginning
of Chapter 1.) Fraser goes on to say that 'the nice country vicar in
effect inoculated vast swaths of the English against Christianity'.

He ends his article by lamenting a more recent trend in the Church
of England to take religion seriously again, and his last sentence is
a warning: 'the worry is that we may release the genie of English
religious fanaticism from the establishment box in which it has
been dormant for centuries'.

The genie of religious fanaticism is rampant in present-day

America, and the Founding Fathers would have been horrified.

Whether or not it is right to embrace the paradox and blame the
secular constitution that they devised, the founders most certainly
were secularists who believed in keeping religion out of politics,
and that is enough to place them firmly on the side of those who

4 2 T H E C O D D E L U S I O N
object, for example, to ostentatious displays of the Ten

Commandments in government-owned public places. But it is
tantalizing to speculate that at least some of the Founders might
have gone beyond deism. Might they have been agnostics or even
out-and-out atheists? The following statement of Jefferson is in-
distinguishable from what we would now call agnosticism:

To talk of immaterial existences is to talk of nothings. To
say that the human soul, angels, god, are immaterial, is to
say they are nothings, or that there is no god, no angels,
no soul. I cannot reason otherwise .. . without plunging
into the fathomless abyss of dreams and phantasms. I am
satisfied, and sufficiently occupied with the things which
are, without tormenting or troubling myself about
those which may indeed be, but of which I have no
evidence.

Christopher Hitchens, in his biography Thomas Jefferson: Author
of America, thinks it likely that Jefferson was an atheist, even in his
own time when it was much harder:

As to whether he was an atheist, we must reserve judg-
ment if only because of the prudence he was compelled to
observe during his political life. But as he had written to
his nephew, Peter Carr, as early as 1787, one must not be
frightened from this inquiry by any fear of its
consequences. 'If it ends in a belief that there is no God,
you will find incitements to virtue in the comfort and
pleasantness you feel in this exercise, and the love of
others which it will procure you.'

I find the following advice of Jefferson, again in his letter to

Peter Carr, moving:

Shake off all the fears of servile prejudices, under which
weak minds are servilely crouched. Fix reason firmly in
her seat, and call on her tribunal for every fact, every
opinion. Question with boldness even the existence of a

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 4 3

God; because, if there be one, he must more approve of
the homage of reason than that of blindfolded fear.

Remarks of Jefferson's such as 'Christianity is the most per-
verted system that ever shone on man' are compatible with deism
but also with atheism. So is James Madison's robust anti-
clericalism: 'During almost fifteen centuries has the legal
establishment of Christianity been on trial. What has been its
fruits? More or less, in all places, pride and indolence in the clergy;
ignorance and servility in the laity; in both, superstition, bigotry
and persecution.' The same could be said of Benjamin Franklin's

'Lighthouses are more useful than churches' and of John Adams's

'This would be the best of all possible worlds, if there were no
religion in it.' Adams delivered himself of some splendid tirades
against Christianity in particular: 'As I understand the Christian
religion, it was, and is, a revelation. But how has it happened that
millions of fables, tales, legends, have been blended with both

Jewish and Christian revelation that have made them the most
bloody religion that ever existed?' And, in another letter, this time
to Jefferson, T almost shudder at the thought of alluding to the
most fatal example of the abuses of grief which the history of
mankind has preserved - the Cross. Consider what calamities that
engine of grief has produced!'

Whether Jefferson and his colleagues were theists, deists,
agnostics or atheists, they were also passionate secularists who
believed that the religious opinions of a President, or lack of them,
were entirely his own business. All the Founding Fathers, whatever
their private religious beliefs, would have been aghast to read the
journalist Robert Sherman's report of George Bush Senior's answer
when Sherman asked him whether he recognized the equal citizen-
ship and patriotism of Americans who are atheists: 'No, I don't
know that atheists should be considered as citizens, nor should they
be considered patriots. This is one nation under God.'22 Assuming

Sherman's account to be accurate (unfortunately he didn't use a
tape-recorder, and no other newspaper ran the story at the time),
try the experiment of replacing 'atheists' with 'Jews' or 'Muslims'

or 'Blacks'. That gives the measure of the prejudice and dis-
crimination that American atheists have to endure today. Natalie

44 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Angier's 'Confessions of a lonely atheist' is a sad and moving
description, in the New York Times, of her feelings of isolation as
an atheist in today's America.23 But the isolation of American
atheists is an illusion, assiduously cultivated by prejudice. Atheists
in America are more numerous than most people realize. As I said
in the Preface, American atheists far outnumber religious Jews,
yet the Jewish lobby is notoriously one of the most formidably
influential in Washington. What might American atheists achieve if
they organized themselves properly?*

David Mills, in his admirable book Atheist Universe, tells a story
which you would dismiss as an unrealistic caricature of police
bigotry if it were fiction. A Christian faith-healer ran a 'Miracle

Crusade' which came to Mills's home town once a year. Among
other things, the faith-healer encouraged diabetics to throw away
their insulin, and cancer patients to give up their chemotherapy and
pray for a miracle instead. Reasonably enough, Mills decided to
organize a peaceful demonstration to warn people. But he made the
mistake of going to the police to tell them of his intention and ask
for police protection against possible attacks from supporters of the
faith-healer. The first police officer to whom he spoke asked, 'Is you
gonna protest fir him or 'gin him?' (meaning for or against the
faith-healer). When Mills replied, 'Against him,' the policeman said
that he himself planned to attend the rally and intended to spit
personally in Mills's face as he marched past Mills's demonstration.

Mills decided to try his luck with a second police officer. This
one said that if any of the faith-healer's supporters violently con-
fronted Mills, the officer would arrest Mills because he was 'trying to
interfere with God's work'. Mills went home and tried telephoning the
police station, in the hope of finding more sympathy at a senior level.

He was finally connected to a sergeant who said, 'To hell with you,

Buddy. No policeman wants to protect a goddamned atheist. I hope
somebody bloodies you up good.' Apparently adverbs were in short
supply in this police station, along with the milk of human kindness
and a sense of duty. Mills relates that he spoke to about seven or eight
policemen that day. None of them was helpful, and most of them
directly threatened Mills with violence.

* Tom Flynn, Editor of Free Inquiry, makes the point forcefully ('Secularism's
breakthrough moment', Free Inquiry 26: 3, 2006, 16-17): 'If atheists are lonely
and downtrodden, we have only ourselves to blame. Numerically, we are strong.

Let's start punching our weight.'

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 4 5

Anecdotes of such prejudice against atheists abound, but

Margaret Downey, of the Freethought Society of Greater

Philadelphia, maintains systematic records of such cases.24 Her
database of incidents, categorized under community, schools,
workplace, media, family and government, includes examples of
harassment, loss of jobs, shunning by family and even murder.25

Downey's documented evidence of the hatred and misunderstand-
ing of atheists makes it easy to believe that it is, indeed, virtually
impossible for an honest atheist to win a public election in America.

There are 435 members of the House of Representatives and 100
members of the Senate. Assuming that the majority of these 535
individuals are an educated sample of the population, it is
statistically all but inevitable that a substantial number of them
must be atheists. They must have lied, or concealed their true feel-
ings, in order to get elected. Who can blame them, given the
electorate they had to convince? It is universally accepted that an
admission of atheism would be instant political suicide for any
presidential candidate.

These facts about today's political climate in the United States,
and what they imply, would have horrified Jefferson, Washington,

Madison, Adams and all their friends. Whether they were atheists,
agnostics, deists or Christians, they would have recoiled in horror
from the theocrats of early 21st-century Washington. They would
have been drawn instead to the secularist founding fathers of post-
colonial India, especially the religious Gandhi ('I am a Hindu, I am
a Moslem, I am a Jew, I am a Christian, I am a Buddhist!'), and the
atheist Nehru:

The spectacle of what is called religion, or at any rate
organised religion, in India and elsewhere, has filled me
with horror and I have frequently condemned it and
wished to make a clean sweep of it. Almost always it
seemed to stand for blind belief and reaction, dogma and
bigotry, superstition, exploitation and the preservation of
vested interests.

Nehru's definition of the secular India of Gandhi's dream (would
that it had been realized, instead of the partitioning of their country

4 6 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
amid an interfaith bloodbath) might almost have been ghosted by

Jefferson himself:

We talk about a secular India . . . Some people think that
it means something opposed to religion. That obviously is
not correct. What it means is that it is a State which
honours all faiths equally and gives them equal oppor-
tunities; India has a long history of religious tolerance . . .

In a country like India, which has many faiths and
religions, no real nationalism can be built up except on the
basis of secularity.26

The deist God is certainly an improvement over the monster of
the Bible. Unfortunately it is scarcely more likely that he exists, or
ever did. In any of its forms the God Hypothesis is unnecessary.*

The God Hypothesis is also very close to being ruled out by the
laws of probability. I shall come to that in Chapter 4, after dealing
with the alleged proofs of the existence of God in Chapter 3.

Meanwhile I turn to agnosticism, and the erroneous notion that the
existence or non-existence of God is an untouchable question, for-
ever beyond the reach of science.

THE POVERTY OF AGNOSTICISM

The robust Muscular Christian haranguing us from the pulpit of
my old school chapel admitted a sneaking regard for atheists. They
at least had the courage of their misguided convictions. What this
preacher couldn't stand was agnostics: namby-pamby, mushy pap,
weak-tea, weedy, pallid fence-sitters. He was partly right, but for
wholly the wrong reason. In the same vein, according to Quentin
de la Bedoyere, the Catholic historian Hugh Ross Williamson

'respected the committed religious believer and also the committed
atheist. He reserved his contempt for the wishy-washy boneless
mediocrities who flapped around in the middle.'27

There is nothing wrong with being agnostic in cases where we
lack evidence one way or the other. It is the reasonable position.

* 'Sire, I had no need of that hypothesis,' as Laplace said when Napoleon won-
dered how the famous mathematician had managed to write his book without
mentioning God.

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 4 7

Carl Sagan was proud to be agnostic when asked whether there was
life elsewhere in the universe. When he refused to commit himself,
his interlocutor pressed him for a 'gut feeling' and he immortally
replied: 'But I try not to think with my gut. Really, it's okay to
reserve judgment until the evidence is in.'28 The question of extra-
terrestrial life is open. Good arguments can be mounted both ways,
and we lack the evidence to do more than shade the probabilities
one way or the other. Agnosticism, of a kind, is an appropriate
stance on many scientific questions, such as what caused the end-

Permian extinction, the greatest mass extinction in fossil history. It
could have been a meteorite strike like the one that, with greater
likelihood on present evidence, caused the later extinction of the
dinosaurs. But it could have been any of various other possible
causes, or a combination. Agnosticism about the causes of both
these mass extinctions is reasonable. How about the question of

God? Should we be agnostic about him too? Many have said
definitely yes, often with an air of conviction that verges on protest-
ing too much. Are they right?

I'll begin by distinguishing two kinds of agnosticism. TAP, or

Temporary Agnosticism in Practice, is the legitimate fence-sitting
where there really is a definite answer, one way or the other, but we
so far lack the evidence to reach it (or don't understand the
evidence, or haven't time to read the evidence, etc.). TAP would be
a reasonable stance towards the Permian extinction. There is a
truth out there and one day we hope to know it, though for the
moment we don't.

But there is also a deeply inescapable kind of fence-sitting, which

I shall call PAP (Permanent Agnosticism in Principle). The fact that
the acronym spells a word used by that old school preacher is

(almost) accidental. The PAP style of agnosticism is appropriate for
questions that can never be answered, no matter how much
evidence we gather, because the very idea of evidence is not applic-
able. The question exists on a different plane, or in a different
dimension, beyond the zones where evidence can reach. An
example might be that philosophical chestnut, the question whether
you see red as I do. Maybe your red is my green, or something
completely different from any colour that I can imagine.

Philosophers cite this question as one that can never be answered,

48 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
no matter what new evidence might one day become available. And
some scientists and other intellectuals are convinced - too eagerly
in my view - that the question of God's existence belongs in the
forever inaccessible PAP category. From this, as we shall see, they
often make the illogical deduction that the hypothesis of God's
existence, and the hypothesis of his non-existence, have exactly
equal probability of being right. The view that I shall defend is very
different: agnosticism about the existence of God belongs firmly in
the temporary or TAP category. Either he exists or he doesn't. It is
a scientific question; one day we may know the answer, and mean-
while we can say something pretty strong about the probability.

In the history of ideas, there are examples of questions being
answered that had earlier been judged forever out of science's
reach. In 1835 the celebrated French philosopher Auguste Comte
wrote, of the stars: 'We shall never be able to study, by any method,
their chemical composition or their mineralogical structure.' Yet
even before Comte had set down these words, Fraunhofer had
begun using his spectroscope to analyse the chemical composition
of the sun. Now spectroscopists daily confound Comte's
agnosticism with their long-distance analyses of the precise
chemical composition of even distant stars.29 Whatever the exact
status of Comte's astronomical agnosticism, this cautionary tale
suggests, at the very least, that we should hesitate before proclaim-
ing the eternal verity of agnosticism too loudly. Nevertheless, when
it comes to God, a great many philosophers and scientists are glad
to do so, beginning with the inventor of the word itself, T. H.

Huxley.30

Huxley explained his coining while rising to a personal attack
that it had provoked. The Principal of King's College, London, the

Reverend Dr Wace, had poured scorn on Huxley's 'cowardly
agnosticism':

He may prefer to call himself an agnostic; but his real
name is an older one - he is an infidel; that is to say,
an unbeliever. The word infidel, perhaps, carries an
unpleasant significance. Perhaps it is right that it should.

It is, and it ought to be, an unpleasant thing for a man to
have to say plainly that he does not believe in Jesus Christ.

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 4 9

Huxley was not the man to let that sort of provocation pass him by,
and his reply in 1889 was as robustly scathing as we should expect

(although never departing from scrupulous good manners: as

Darwin's Bulldog, his teeth were sharpened by urbane Victorian
irony). Eventually, having dealt Dr Wace his just comeuppance and
buried the remains, Huxley returned to the word 'agnostic' and
explained how he first came by it. Others, he noted,
were quite sure they had attained a certain 'gnosis' - had,
more or less successfully, solved the problem of existence;
while I was quite sure I had not, and had a pretty strong
conviction that the problem was insoluble. And, with

Hume and Kant on my side, I could not think myself
presumptuous in holding fast by that opinion . . . So I
took thought, and invented what I conceived to be the
appropriate title of 'agnostic'.

Later in his speech, Huxley went on to explain that agnostics have
no creed, not even a negative one.

Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the
essence of which lies in the rigorous application of a single
principle. . . . Positively the principle may be expressed: In
matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will
take you, without regard to any other consideration. And
negatively: In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that
conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or
demonstrable. That I take to be the agnostic faith, which
if a man keep whole and undefiled, he shall not be
ashamed to look the universe in the face, whatever the
future may have in store for him.

To a scientist these are noble words, and one doesn't criticize

T. H. Huxley lightly. But Huxley, in his concentration upon the
absolute impossibility of proving or disproving God, seems to have
been ignoring the shading of probability. The fact that we can neither
prove nor disprove the existence of something does, not put existence
and non-existence on an even footing. I don't think Huxley would

5 0 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
disagree, and I suspect that when he appeared to do so he was bend-
ing over backwards to concede a point, in the interests of securing
another one. We have all done this at one time or another.

Contrary to Huxley, I shall suggest that the existence of God is
a scientific hypothesis like any other. Even if hard to test in practice,
it belongs in the same TAP or temporary agnosticism box as the
controversies over the Permian and Cretaceous extinctions. God's
existence or non-existence is a scientific fact about the universe, dis-
coverable in principle if not in practice. If he existed and chose to
reveal it, God himself could clinch the argument, noisily and
unequivocally, in his favour. And even if God's existence is never
proved or disproved with certainty one way or the other, available
evidence and reasoning may yield an estimate of probability far
from 50 per cent.

Let us, then, take the idea of a spectrum of probabilities
seriously, and place human judgements about the existence of God
along it, between two extremes of opposite certainty. The spectrum
is continuous, but it can be represented by the following seven
milestones along the way.

1 Strong theist. 100 per cent probability of God. In the words of

C. G. Jung, 'I do not believe, I know.'

2 Very high probability but short of 100 per cent. De facto
theist. 'I cannot know for certain, but I strongly believe
in God and live my life on the assumption that he is
there.'

3 Higher than 50 per cent but not very high. Technically agnostic
but leaning towards theism. 'I am very uncertain, but I am
inclined to believe in God.'

4 Exactly 50 per cent. Completely impartial agnostic. 'God's
existence and non-existence are exactly equiprobable.'

5 Lower than 50 per cent but not very low. Technically agnostic
but leaning towards atheism. 'I don't know whether God exists
but I'm inclined to be sceptical.'

6 Very low probability, but short of zero. De facto atheist. 'I

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 5 1
cannot know for certain but I think God is very improbable,
and I live my life on the assumption that he is not
there.'

7 Strong atheist. 'I know there is no God, with the same
conviction as Jung "knows" there is one.'

I'd be surprised to meet many people in category 7, but I include
it for symmetry with category 1, which is well populated. It is in the
nature of faith that one is capable, like Jung, of holding a belief
without adequate reason to do so (Jung also believed that particular
books on his shelf spontaneously exploded with a loud bang).

Atheists do not have faith; and reason alone could not propel one
to total conviction that anything definitely does not exist. Hence
category 7 is in practice rather emptier than its opposite number,
category 1, which has many devoted inhabitants. I count
myself in category 6, but leaning towards 7 - 1 am agnostic only to
the extent that I am agnostic about fairies at the bottom of the
garden.

The spectrum of probabilities works well for TAP (temporary
agnosticism in practice). It is superficially tempting to place PAP

(permanent agnosticism in principle) in the middle of the spectrum,
with a 50 per cent probability of God's existence, but this is not
correct. PAP agnostics aver that we cannot say anything, one way
or the other, on the question of whether or not God exists. The
question, for PAP agnostics, is in principle unanswerable, and they
should strictly refuse to place themselves anywhere on the spectrum
of probabilities. The fact that I cannot know whether your red is
the same as my green doesn't make the probability 50 per cent. The
proposition on offer is too meaningless to be dignified with a prob-
ability. Nevertheless, it is a common error, which we shall meet
again, to leap from the premise that the question of God's existence
is in principle unanswerable to the conclusion that his existence and
his non-existence are equiprobable.

Another way to express that error is in terms of the burden of
proof, and in this form it is pleasingly demonstrated by Bertrand

Russell's parable of the celestial teapot.31

52 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Many orthodox people speak as though it were the
business of sceptics to disprove received dogmas rather
than of dogmatists to prove them. This is, of course, a
mistake. If I were to suggest that between the Earth and

Mars there is a china teapot revolving about the sun in an
elliptical orbit, nobody would be able to disprove my
assertion provided I were careful to add that the teapot is
too small to be revealed even by our most powerful
telescopes. But if I were to go on to say that, since my
assertion cannot be disproved, it is intolerable pre-
sumption on the part of human reason to doubt it, I
should rightly be thought to be talking nonsense. If, how-
ever, the existence of such a teapot were affirmed in
ancient books, taught as the sacred truth every Sunday,
and instilled into the minds of children at school,
hesitation to believe in its existence would become a mark
of eccentricity and entitle the doubter to the attentions of
the psychiatrist in an enlightened age or of the Inquisitor
in an earlier time.

We would not waste time saying so because nobody, so far as I
know, worships teapots;* but, if pressed, we would not hesitate to
declare our strong belief that there is positively no orbiting teapot.

Yet strictly we should all be teapot agnostics: we cannot prove, for
sure, that there is no celestial teapot. In practice, we move away
from teapot agnosticism towards a-teapotisin.

A friend, who was brought up a Jew and still observes the
sabbath and other Jewish customs out of loyalty to his heritage,
describes himself as a 'tooth fairy agnostic'. He regards God as no
more probable than the tooth fairy. You can't disprove either
hypothesis, and both are equally improbable. He is an a-theist to
exactly the same large extent that he is an a-fairyist. And agnostic
about both, to the same small extent.

Russell's teapot, of course, stands for an infinite number of
things whose existence is conceivable and cannot be disproved.

That great American lawyer Clarence Darrow said, 'I don't believe

* Perhaps I spoke too soon. The Independent on Sunday of 5 June 2005 carried
the following item: 'Malaysian officials say religious sect which built sacred teapot
the size of a house has flouted planning regulations.' See also BBC News at
http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4692039.stm.

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 5 3
in God as I don't believe in Mother Goose.' The journalist Andrew

Mueller is of the opinion that pledging yourself to any particular
religion 'is no more or less weird than choosing to believe that the
world is rhombus-shaped, and borne through the cosmos in
the pincers of two enormous green lobsters called Esmerelda and

Keith'.32 A philosophical favourite is the invisible, intangible,
inaudible unicorn, disproof of which is attempted yearly by the
children at Camp Quest.* A popular deity on the Internet at present

- and as undisprovable as Yahweh or any other - is the Flying

Spaghetti Monster, who, many claim, has touched them with his
noodly appendage.33 I am delighted to see that the Gospel of the

Flying Spaghetti Monster has now been published as a book,34 to
great acclaim. I haven't read it myself, but who needs to read a
gospel when you just know it's true? By the way, it had to happen

- a Great Schism has already occurred, resulting in the Reformed

Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster.35

The point of all these way-out examples is that they are un-
disprovable, yet nobody thinks the hypothesis of their existence is
on an even footing with the hypothesis of their non-existence.

Russell's point is that the burden of proof rests with the believers,
not the non-believers. Mine is the related point that the odds in
favour of the teapot (spaghetti monster / Esmerelda and Keith /
unicorn etc.) are not equal to the odds against.

The fact that orbiting teapots and tooth fairies are undisprov-
able is not felt, by any reasonable person, to be the kind of fact that
settles any interesting argument. None of us feels an obligation to
disprove any of the millions of far-fetched things that a fertile or
facetious imagination might dream up. I have found it an amusing
strategy, when asked whether I am an atheist, to point out that the
questioner is also an atheist when considering Zeus, Apollo, Amon

Ra, Mithras, Baal, Thor, Wotan, the Golden Calf and the Flying

Spaghetti Monster. I just go one god further.

All of us feel entitled to express extreme scepticism to the point

* Camp Quest takes the American institution of the summer camp in an entirely
admirable direction. Unlike other summer camps that follow a religious or scout-
ing ethos, Camp Quest, founded by Edwin and Helen Kagin in Kentucky, is run
by secular humanists, and the children are encouraged to think sceptically for
themselves while having a very good time with all the usual outdoor activities

(www.camp-quest.org). Other Camp Quests with a similar ethos have now sprung
up in Tennessee, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio and Canada.

54 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
of outright disbelief - except that in the case of unicorns, tooth
fairies and the gods of Greece, Rome, Egypt and the Vikings, there
is (nowadays) no need to bother. In the case of the Abrahamic God,
however, there is a need to bother, because a substantial proportion
of the people with whom we share the planet do believe strongly in
his existence. Russell's teapot demonstrates that the ubiquity of
belief in God, as compared with belief in celestial teapots, does not
shift the burden of proof in logic, although it may seem to shift it
as a matter of practical politics. That you cannot prove God's non-
existence is accepted and trivial, if only in the sense that we can
never absolutely prove the non-existence of anything. What matters
is not whether God is disprovable (he isn't) but whether his
existence is probable. That is another matter. Some undisprovable
things are sensibly judged far less probable than other undisprov-
able things. There is no reason to regard God as immune from
consideration along the spectrum of probabilities. And there is
certainly no reason to suppose that, just because God can be neither
proved nor disproved, his probability of existence is 50 per cent.

On the contrary, as we shall see.

NOMA

Just as Thomas Huxley bent over backwards to pay lip service to
completely impartial agnosticism, right in the middle of my seven-
stage spectrum, theists do the same thing from the other direction, and
for an equivalent reason. The theologian Alister McGrath makes it the
central point of his book Dawkins' God: Genes, Memes and the

Origin of Life. Indeed, after his admirably fair summary of my
scientific works, it seems to be the only point in rebuttal that he has
to offer: the undeniable but ignominiously weak point that you can-
not disprove the existence of God. On page after page as I read

McGrath, I found myself scribbling 'teapot' in the margin. Again
invoking T. H. Huxley, McGrath says, 'Fed up with both theists and
atheists making hopelessly dogmatic statements on the basis of in-
adequate empirical evidence, Huxley declared that the God question
could not be settled on the basis of the scientific method.'

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 5 5

McGrath goes on to quote Stephen Jay Gould in similar vein:

'To say it for all my colleagues and for the umpteenth millionth
time (from college bull sessions to learned treatises): science simply
cannot (by its legitimate methods) adjudicate the issue of God's
possible superintendence of nature. We neither affirm nor deny it;
we simply can't comment on it as scientists.' Despite the confident,
almost bullying, tone of Gould's assertion, what, actually, is the
justification for it? Why shouldn't we comment on God, as
scientists? And why isn't Russell's teapot, or the Flying Spaghetti

Monster, equally immune from scientific scepticism? As I shall
argue in a moment, a universe with a creative superintendent would
be a very different kind of universe from one without. Why is that
not a scientific matter?

Gould carried the art of bending over backwards to positively
supine lengths in one of his less admired books, Rocks of Ages.

There he coined the acronym NOMA for the phrase 'non-
overlapping magisterial

The net, or magisterium, of science covers the empirical
realm: what is the universe made of (fact) and why does it
work this way (theory). The magisterium of religion
extends over questions of ultimate meaning and moral
value. These two magisteria do not overlap, nor do they
encompass all inquiry (consider, for example, the
magisterium of art and the meaning of beauty). To cite the
old cliches, science gets the age of rocks, and religion the
rock of ages; science studies how the heavens go, religion
how to go to heaven.

This sounds terrific - right up until you give it a moment's thought.

What are these ultimate questions in whose presence religion is an
honoured guest and science must respectfully slink away?

Martin Rees, the distinguished Cambridge astronomer whom I
have already mentioned, begins his book Our Cosmic Habitat by
posing two candidate ultimate questions and giving a NOMA-
friendly answer. 'The pre-eminent mystery is why anything exists at
all. What breathes life into the equations, and actualized them in a
real cosmos? Such questions lie beyond science, however: they are

5 6 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N
the province of philosophers and theologians.' I would prefer to say
that if indeed they lie beyond science, they most certainly lie beyond
the province of theologians as well (I doubt that philosophers
would thank Martin Rees for lumping theologians in with them). I
am tempted to go further and wonder in what possible sense
theologians can be said to have a province. I am still amused when

I recall the remark of a former Warden (head) of my Oxford
college. A young theologian had applied for a junior research
fellowship, and his doctoral thesis on Christian theology provoked
the Warden to say, 'I have grave doubts as to whether it's a subject
at all.'

What expertise can theologians bring to deep cosmological
questions that scientists cannot? In another book I recounted the
words of an Oxford astronomer who, when I asked him one of
those same deep questions, said: 'Ah, now we move beyond the
realm of science. This is where I have to hand over to our good
friend the chaplain.' I was not quick-witted enough to utter the
response that I later wrote: 'But why the chaplain? Why not
the gardener or the chef?' Why are scientists so cravenly respectful
towards the ambitions of theologians, over questions that
theologians are certainly no more qualified to answer than
scientists themselves?

It is a tedious cliche (and, unlike many cliches, it isn't even true)

that science concerns itself with how questions, but only theology
is equipped to answer why questions. What on Earth is a why
question? Not every English sentence beginning with the word

'why' is a legitimate question. Why are unicorns hollow? Some
questions simply do not deserve an answer. What is the colour of
abstraction? What is the smell of hope? The fact that a question can
be phrased in a grammatically correct English sentence doesn't
make it meaningful, or entitle it to our serious attention. Nor, even
if the question is a real one, does the fact that science cannot answer
it imply that religion can.

Perhaps there are some genuinely profound and meaningful
questions that are forever beyond the reach of science. Maybe
quantum theory is already knocking on the door of the un-
fathomable. But if science cannot answer some ultimate question,
what makes anybody think that religion can? I suspect that neither

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 5 7
the Cambridge nor the Oxford astronomer really believed that
theologians have any expertise that enables them to answer
questions that are too deep for science. I suspect that both
astronomers were, yet again, bending over backwards to be polite:

theologians have nothing worthwhile to say about anything else;
let's throw them a sop and let them worry away at a couple of
questions that nobody can answer and maybe never will. Unlike my
astronomer friends, I don't think we should even throw them a sop.

I have yet to see any good reason to suppose that theology (as
opposed to biblical history, literature, etc.) is a subject at all.

Similarly, we can all agree that science's entitlement to advise us
on moral values is problematic, to say the least. But does Gould
really want to cede to religion the right to tell us what is good and
what is bad? The fact that it has nothing else to contribute to
human wisdom is no reason to hand religion a free licence to tell us
what to do. Which religion, anyway? The one in which we happen
to have been brought up? To which chapter, then, of which book of
the Bible should we turn - for they are far from unanimous and
some of them are odious by any reasonable standards. How many
literalists have read enough of the Bible to know that the death
penalty is prescribed for adultery, for gathering sticks on the
sabbath and for cheeking your parents? If we reject Deuteronomy
and Leviticus (as all enlightened moderns do), by what criteria do
we then decide which of religion's moral values to accept} Or
should we pick and choose among all the world's religions until we
find one whose moral teaching suits us? If so, again we must ask,
by what criterion do we choose? And if we have independent
criteria for choosing among religious moralities, why not cut out
the middle man and go straight for the moral choice without the
religion? I shall return to such questions in Chapter 7.

I simply do not believe that Gould could possibly have meant
much of what he wrote in Rocks of Ages. As I say, we have all been
guilty of bending over backwards to be nice to an unworthy but
powerful opponent, and I can only think that this is what Gould
was doing. It is conceivable that he really did intend his un-
equivocally strong statement that science has nothing whatever to
say about the question of God's existence: 'We neither affirm nor
deny it; we simply can't comment on it as scientists.' This sounds

5 8 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
like agnosticism of the permanent and irrevocable kind, full-blown

PAP. It implies that science cannot even make probability judge-
ments on the question. This remarkably widespread fallacy - many
repeat it like a mantra but few of them, I suspect, have thought it
through - embodies what I refer to as 'the poverty of agnosticism'.

Gould, by the way, was not an impartial agnostic but strongly
inclined towards de facto atheism. On what basis did he make that
judgement, if there is nothing to be said about whether God exists?

The God Hypothesis suggests that the reality we inhabit also
contains a supernatural agent who designed the universe and - at
least in many versions of the hypothesis - maintains it and even
intervenes in it with miracles, which are temporary violations of his
own otherwise grandly immutable laws. Richard Swinburne, one of

Britain's leading theologians, is surprisingly clear on the matter in
his book 7s There a God?:

What the theist claims about God is that he does have a
power to create, conserve, or annihilate anything, big or
small. And he can also make objects move or do anything
else . . . He can make the planets move in the way that

Kepler discovered that they move, or make gunpowder
explode when we set a match to it; or he can make planets
move in quite different ways, and chemical substances
explode or not explode under quite different conditions
from those which now govern their behaviour. God is not
limited by the laws of nature; he makes them and he can
change or suspend them - if he chooses.

Just too easy, isn't it! Whatever else this is, it is very far from

NOMA. And whatever else they may say, those scientists who sub-
scribe to the 'separate magisteria' school of thought should concede
that a universe with a supernaturally intelligent creator is a very
different kind of universe from one without. The difference
between the two hypothetical universes could hardly be more
fundamental in principle, even if it is not easy to test in practice.

And it undermines the complacently seductive dictum that science
must be completely silent about religion's central existence claim.

The presence or absence of a creative super-intelligence is

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 5 9
unequivocally a scientific question, even if it is not in practice - or
not yet - a decided one. So also is the truth or falsehood of every
one of the miracle stories that religions rely upon to impress multi-
tudes of the faithful.

Did Jesus have a human father, or was his mother a virgin at the
time of his birth? Whether or not there is enough surviving evidence
to decide it, this is still a strictly scientific question with a definite
answer in principle: yes or no. Did Jesus raise Lazarus from the
dead? Did he himself come alive again, three days after being
crucified? There is an answer to every such question, whether or
not we can discover it in practice, and it is a strictly scientific
answer. The methods we should use to settle the matter, in the
unlikely event that relevant evidence ever became available, would
be purely and entirely scientific methods. To dramatize the point,
imagine, by some remarkable set of circumstances, that forensic
archaeologists unearthed DNA evidence to show that Jesus really
did lack a biological father. Can you imagine religious apologists
shrugging their shoulders and saying anything remotely like the
following? 'Who cares? Scientific evidence is completely irrelevant
to theological questions. Wrong magisterium! We're concerned
only with ultimate questions and with moral values. Neither DNA
nor any other scientific evidence could ever have any bearing on the
matter, one way or the other.'

The very idea is a joke. You can bet your boots that the scientific
evidence, if any were to turn up, would be seized upon and
trumpeted to the skies. NOMA is popular only because there is no
evidence to favour the God Hypothesis. The moment there was the
smallest suggestion of any evidence in favour of religious belief,
religious apologists would lose no time in throwing NOMA out of
the window. Sophisticated theologians aside (and even they are
happy to tell miracle stories to the unsophisticated in order to
swell congregations), I suspect that alleged miracles provide the
strongest reason many believers have for their faith; and miracles,
by definition, violate the principles of science.

The Roman Catholic Church on the one hand seems sometimes
to aspire to NOMA, but on the other hand lays down the
performance of miracles as an essential qualification for elevation
to sainthood. The late King of the Belgians is a candidate for

60 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
sainthood, because of his stand on abortion. Earnest investigations
are now going on to discover whether any miraculous cures can be
attributed to prayers offered up to him since his death. I am not
joking. That is the case, and it is typical of saint stories. I imagine
the whole business is an embarrassment to more sophisticated
circles within the Church. Why any circles worthy of the name of
sophisticated remain within the Church is a mystery at least as deep
as those that theologians enjoy.

When faced with miracle stories, Gould would presumably
retort along the following lines. The whole point of NOMA is that
it is a two-way bargain. The moment religion steps on science's turf
and starts to meddle in the real world with miracles, it ceases to be
religion in the sense Gould is defending, and his amicabilis
concordia is broken. Note, however, that the miracle-free religion
defended by Gould would not be recognized by most practising
theists in the pew or on the prayer mat. It would, indeed, be a grave
disappointment to them. To adapt Alice's comment on her sister's
book before she fell into Wonderland, what is the use of a God
who does no miracles and answers no prayers? Remember

Ambrose Bierce's witty definition of the verb 'to pray': 'to ask that
the laws of the universe be annulled in behalf of a single petitioner,
confessedly unworthy'. There are athletes who believe God helps
them win - against opponents who would seem, on the face of it,
no less worthy of his favouritism. There are motorists who believe

God saves them a parking space - thereby presumably depriving
somebody else. This style of theism is embarrassingly popular, and
is unlikely to be impressed by anything as (superficially) reasonable
as NOMA.

Nevertheless, let us follow Gould and pare our religion down to
some sort of non-interventionist minimum: no miracles, no
personal communication between God and us in either direction,
no monkeying with the laws of physics, no trespassing on the
scientific grass. At most, a little deistic input to the initial conditions
of the universe so that, in the fullness of time, stars, elements,
chemistry and planets develop, and life evolves. Surely that is an
adequate separation? Surely NOMA can survive this more modest
and unassuming religion?

Well, you might think so. But I suggest that even a

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 6 1
non-interventionist, NOMA God, though less violent and clumsy
than an Abrahamic God, is still, when you look at him fair and
square, a scientific hypothesis. I return to the point: a universe in
which we are alone except for other slowly evolved intelligences is
a very different universe from one with an original guiding agent
whose intelligent design is responsible for its very existence. I accept
that it may not be so easy in practice to distinguish one kind of
universe from the other. Nevertheless, there is something utterly
special about the hypothesis of ultimate design, and equally special
about the only known alternative: gradual evolution in the broad
sense. They are close to being irreconcilably different. Like nothing
else, evolution really does provide an explanation for the existence
of entities whose improbability would otherwise, for practical
purposes, rule them out. And the conclusion to the argument, as I
shall show in Chapter 4, is close to being terminally fatal to the

God Hypothesis.

THE GREAT PRAYER EXPERIMENT

An amusing, if rather pathetic, case study in miracles is the Great

Prayer Experiment: does praying for patients help them recover?

Prayers are commonly offered for sick people, both privately and in
formal places of worship. Darwin's cousin Francis Galton was the
first to analyse scientifically whether praying for people is
efficacious. He noted that every Sunday, in churches throughout

Britain, entire congregations prayed publicly for the health of the
royal family. Shouldn't they, therefore, be unusually fit, compared
with the rest of us, who are prayed for only by our nearest and
dearest?* Galton looked into it, and found no statistical difference.

His intention may, in any case, have been satirical, as also when he
prayed over randomized plots of land to see if the plants would
grow any faster (they didn't).

More recently, the physicist Russell Stannard (one of Britain's
three well-known religious scientists, as we shall see) has thrown

* When my Oxford college elected the Warden whom I quoted earlier, it happened
that the Fellows publicly drank his health on three successive evenings. At the third
of these dinners, he graciously remarked in his speech of reply: 'I'm feeling better
already.'

62 T H E G O D D E L U S I G N
his weight behind an initiative, funded by - of course - the

Templeton Foundation, to test experimentally the proposition that
praying for sick patients improves their health.36

Such experiments, if done properly, have to be double blind, and
this standard was strictly observed. The patients were assigned,
strictly at random, to an experimental group (received prayers) or
a control group (received no prayers). Neither the patients, nor
their doctors or caregivers, nor the experimenters were allowed to
know which patients were being prayed for and which patients
were controls. Those who did the experimental praying had to
know the names of the individuals for whom they were praying -
otherwise, in what sense would they be praying for them rather
than for somebody else? But care was taken to tell them only the
first name and initial letter of the surname. Apparently that would
be enough to enable God to pinpoint the right hospital bed.

The very idea of doing such experiments is open to a generous
measure of ridicule, and the project duly received it. As far as I
know, Bob Newhart didn't do a sketch about it, but I can distinctly
hear his voice:

What's that you say, Lord? You can't cure me because I'm
a member of the control group? . . . Oh I see, my aunt's
prayers aren't enough. But Lord, Mr Evans in the next-
door bed . . . What was that, Lord? . . . Mr Evans received
a thousand prayers per day? But Lord, Mr Evans doesn't
know a thousand people . . . Oh, they just referred to him
as John E. But Lord, how did you know they didn't mean

John Ellsworthy? . . . Oh right, you used your
omniscience to work out which John E they meant. But

Lord . . .

Valiantly shouldering aside all mockery, the team of researchers
soldiered on, spending $2.4 million of Templeton money under the
leadership of Dr Herbert Benson, a cardiologist at the Mind/Body

Medical Institute near Boston. Dr Benson was earlier quoted in a

Templeton press release as 'believing that evidence for the efficacy
of intercessory prayer in medicinal settings is mounting'.

Reassuringly, then, the research was in good hands, unlikely to be

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 63
spoiled by sceptical vibrations. Dr Benson and his team monitored

1,802 patients at six hospitals, all of whom received coronary
bypass surgery. The patients were divided into three groups. Group

1 received prayers and didn't know it. Group 2 (the control group)

received no prayers and didn't know it. Group 3 received prayers
and did know it. The comparison between Groups 1 and 2 tests for
the efficacy of intercessory prayer. Group 3 tests for possible
psychosomatic effects of knowing that one is being prayed for.

Prayers were delivered by the congregations of three churches,
one in Minnesota, one in Massachusetts and one in Missouri, all
distant from the three hospitals. The praying individuals, as
explained, were given only the first name and initial letter of the
surname of each patient for whom they were to pray. It is good
experimental practice to standardize as far as possible, and they
were all, accordingly, told to include in their prayers the phrase

'for a successful surgery with a quick, healthy recovery and no
complications'.

The results, reported in the American Heart Journal of April

2006, were clear-cut. There was no difference between those
patients who were prayed for and those who were not. What a sur-
prise. There was a difference between those who knew they had
been prayed for and those who did not know one way or the other;
but it went in the wrong direction. Those who knew they had been
the beneficiaries of prayer suffered significantly more complications
than those who did not. Was God doing a bit of smiting, to show
his disapproval of the whole barmy enterprise? It seems more prob-
able that those patients who knew they were being prayed for
suffered additional stress in consequence: 'performance anxiety', as
the experimenters put it. Dr Charles Bethea, one of the researchers,
said, 'It may have made them uncertain, wondering am I so sick
they had to call in their prayer team?' In today's litigious society, is
it too much to hope that those patients suffering heart compli-
cations, as a consequence of knowing they were receiving
experimental prayers, might put together a class action lawsuit
against the Templeton Foundation?

It will be no surprise that this study was opposed by theologians,
perhaps anxious about its capacity to bring ridicule upon religion.

The Oxford theologian Richard Swinburne, writing after the study

64 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N
failed, objected to it on the grounds that God answers prayers only
if they are offered up for good reasons.37 Praying for somebody
rather than somebody else, simply because of the fall of the dice in
the design of a double-blind experiment, does not constitute a good
reason. God would see through it. That, indeed, was the point of
my Bob Newhart satire, and Swinburne is right to make it too. But in
other parts of his paper Swinburne himself is beyond satire. Not for
the first time, he seeks to justify suffering in a world run by God:

My suffering provides me with the opportunity to show
courage and patience. It provides you with the oppor-
tunity to show sympathy and to help alleviate my
suffering. And it provides society with the opportunity to
choose whether or not to invest a lot of money in trying
to find a cure for this or that particular kind of suffering

. . . Although a good God regrets our suffering, his
greatest concern is surely that each of us shall show
patience, sympathy and generosity and, thereby, form a
holy character. Some people badly need to be ill for their
own sake, and some people badly need to be ill to provide
important choices for others. Only in that way can some
people be encouraged to make serious choices about the
sort of person they are to be. For other people, illness is
not so valuable.

This grotesque piece of reasoning, so damningly typical of the
theological mind, reminds me of an occasion when I was on a
television panel with Swinburne, and also with our Oxford
colleague Professor Peter Atkins. Swinburne at one point attempted
to justify the Holocaust on the grounds that it gave the Jews a
wonderful opportunity to be courageous and noble. Peter Atkins
splendidly growled, 'May you rot in hell.'*

* This interchange was edited out of the final broadcast version. That Swinburne's
remark is typical of his theology is indicated by his rather similar comment about

Hiroshima in The Existence of God (2004), page 264: 'Suppose that one less
person had been burnt by the Hiroshima atomic bomb. Then there would have
been less opportunity for courage and sympathy . . .'

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 6 5

Another typical piece of theological reasoning occurs further
along in Swinburne's article. He rightly suggests that if God wanted
to demonstrate his own existence he would find better ways to do
it than slightly biasing the recovery statistics of experimental versus
control groups of heart patients. If God existed and wanted to
convince us of it, he could 'fill the world with super-miracles'. But
then Swinburne lets fall his gem: 'There is quite a lot of evidence
anyway of God's existence, and too much might not be good for
us.' Too much might not be good for us! Read it again. Too much
evidence might not be good for us. Richard Swinburne is the
recently retired holder of one of Britain's most prestigious
professorships of theology, and is a Fellow of the British Academy.

If it's a theologian you want, they don't come much more
distinguished. Perhaps you don't want a theologian.

Swinburne wasn't the only theologian to disown the study after
it had failed. The Reverend Raymond J. Lawrence was granted a
generous tranche of op-ed space in the New York Times to explain
why responsible religious leaders 'will breathe a sigh of relief that
no evidence could be found of intercessory prayer having any
effect.38 Would he have sung a different tune if the Benson study
had succeeded in demonstrating the power of prayer? Maybe not,
but you can be certain that plenty of other pastors and theologians
would. The Reverend Lawrence's piece is chiefly memorable for the
following revelation: 'Recently, a colleague told me about a devout,
well-educated woman who accused a doctor of malpractice in his
treatment of her husband. During her husband's dying days, she
charged, the doctor had failed to pray for him.'

Other theologians joined NOMA-inspired sceptics in contending
that studying prayer in this way is a waste of money because super-
natural influences are by definition beyond the reach of science. But
as the Templeton Foundation correctly recognized when it financed
the study, the alleged power of intercessory prayer is at least in
principle within the reach of science. A double-blind experiment
can be done and was done. It could have yielded a positive result.

And if it had, can you imagine that a single religious apologist
would have dismissed it on the grounds that scientific research has
no bearing on religious matters? Of course not.

Needless to say, the negative results of the experiment will not

66 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
shake the faithful. Bob Barth, the spiritual director of the Missouri
prayer ministry which supplied some of the experimental prayers,
said: 'A person of faith would say that this study is interesting, but
we've been praying a long time and we've seen prayer work, we
know it works, and the research on prayer and spirituality is just
getting started.' Yeah, right: we know from our faith that prayer
works, so if evidence fails to show it we'll just soldier on until
finally we get the result we want.

THE NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN SCHOOL OF

EVOLUTIONISTS

A possible ulterior motive for those scientists who insist on NOMA

- the invulnerability to science of the God Hypothesis - is a
peculiarly American political agenda, provoked by the threat of
populist creationism. In parts of the United States, science is under
attack from a well-organized, politically well-connected and, above
all, well-financed opposition, and the teaching of evolution is in the
front-line trench. Scientists could be forgiven for feeling threatened,
because most research money comes ultimately from government,
and elected representatives have to answer to the ignorant and
prejudiced, as well as to the well-informed, among their constituents.

In response to such threats, an evolution defence lobby has
sprung up, most notably represented by the National Center for

Science Education (NCSE), led by Eugenie Scott, indefatigable
activist on behalf of science who has recently produced her own
book, Evolution vs. Creationism. One of NCSE's main political
objectives is to court and mobilize 'sensible' religious opinion:

mainstream churchmen and women who have no problem with
evolution and may regard it as irrelevant to (or even in some
strange way supportive of) their faith. It is to this mainstream of
clergy, theologians and non-fundamentalist believers, embarrassed
as they are by creationism because it brings religion into disrepute,
that the evolution defence lobby tries to appeal. And one way to do
this is to bend over backwards in their direction by espousing

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 67

NOMA - agree that science is completely non-threatening, because
it is disconnected from religion's claims.

Another prominent luminary of what we might call the Neville

Chamberlain school of evolutionists is the philosopher Michael

Ruse. Ruse has been an effective fighter against creationism,39 both
on paper and in court. He claims to be an atheist, but his article in

Playboy takes the view that
we who love science must realize that the enemy of our
enemies is our friend. Too often evolutionists spend time
insulting would-be allies. This is especially true of secular
evolutionists. Atheists spend more time running down
sympathetic Christians than they do countering
creationists. When John Paul II wrote a letter endorsing

Darwinism, Richard Dawkins's response was simply that
the pope was a hypocrite, that he could not be genuine
about science and that Dawkins himself simply preferred
an honest fundamentalist.

From a purely tactical viewpoint, I can see the superficial appeal of

Ruse's comparison with the fight against Hitler: 'Winston Churchill
and Franklin Roosevelt did not like Stalin and communism. But in
fighting Hitler they realized that they had to work with the Soviet

Union. Evolutionists of all kinds must likewise work together to
fight creationism.' But I finally come down on the side of my
colleague the Chicago geneticist Jerry Coyne, who wrote that Ruse
fails to grasp the real nature of the conflict. It's not just
about evolution versus creationism. To scientists like

Dawkins and Wilson [E. O. Wilson, the celebrated

Harvard biologist], the real war is between rationalism
and superstition. Science is but one form of rationalism,
while religion is the most common form of superstition.

Creationism is just a symptom of what they see as the
greater enemy: religion. While religion can exist without
creationism, creationism cannot exist without religion.40

I do have one thing in common with the creationists. Like me,

68 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
but unlike the 'Chamberlain school', they will have no truck with

NOMA and its separate magisteria. Far from respecting the
separateness of science's turf, creationists like nothing better than to
trample their dirty hobnails all over it. And they fight dirty, too.

Lawyers for creationists, in court cases around the American
boondocks, seek out evolutionists who are openly atheists. I know

- to my chagrin - that my name has been used in this way. It is an
effective tactic because juries selected at random are likely to
include individuals brought up to believe that atheists are demons
incarnate, on a par with pedophiles or 'terrorists' (today's
equivalent of Salem's witches and McCarthy's Commies). Any
creationist lawyer who got me on the stand could instantly win over
the jury simply by asking me: 'Has your knowledge of evolution
influenced you in the direction of becoming an atheist?' I would
have to answer yes and, at one stroke, I would have lost the jury.

By contrast, the judicially correct answer from the secularist side
would be: 'My religious beliefs, or lack of them, are a private
matter, neither the business of this court nor connected in any way
with my science.' I couldn't honestly say this, for reasons I shall
explain in Chapter 4.

The Guardian journalist Madeleine Bunting wrote an article
entitled 'Why the intelligent design lobby thanks God for Richard

Dawkins'.41 There's no indication that she consulted anybody
except Michael Ruse, and her article might as well have been ghost-
written by him.* Dan Dennett replied, aptly quoting Uncle Remus:

I find it amusing that two Brits - Madeleine Bunting and

Michael Ruse - have fallen for a version of one of the
most famous scams in American folklore (Why the
intelligent design lobby thanks God for Richard Dawkins,

March 27). When Brer Rabbit gets caught by the fox, he
pleads with him: 'Oh, please, please, Brer Fox, whatever
you do, don't throw me in that awful briar patch!' -
where he ends up safe and sound after the fox does just
that. When the American propagandist William Dembski
writes tauntingly to Richard Dawkins, telling him to keep

* The same could be said of an article, 'When cosmologies collide', in the New

York Times, 22 Jan. 2006, by the respected (and usually much better briefed) jour-
nalist Judith Shulevitz. General Montgomery's First Rule of War was 'Don't march
on Moscow.' Perhaps there should be a First Rule of Science Journalism: 'Interview
at least one person other than Michael Ruse.'

T H E G O D II Y P O T H E S I S 69
up the good work on behalf of intelligent design, Bunting
and Ruse fall for it! 'Oh golly, Brer Fox, your forthright
assertion - that evolutionary biology disproves the idea of
a creator God - jeopardises the teaching of biology in
science class, since teaching that would violate the
separation of church and state!' Right. You also ought to
soft-pedal physiology, since it declares virgin birth
impossible .. .42

This whole issue, including an independent invocation of Brer

Rabbit in the briar patch, is well discussed by the biologist P. Z.

Myers, whose Pharyngula blog can reliably be consulted for trench-
ant good sense.43

I am not suggesting that my colleagues of the appeasement lobby
are necessarily dishonest. They may sincerely believe in NOMA,
although I can't help wondering how thoroughly they've thought
it through and how they reconcile the internal conflicts in their
minds. There is no need to pursue the matter for the moment, but
anyone seeking to understand the published statements of scientists
on religious matters would do well not to forget the political con-
text: the surreal culture wars now rending America. NOMA-style
appeasement will surface again in a later chapter. Here, I return to
agnosticism and the possibility of chipping away at our ignorance
and measurably reducing our uncertainty about the existence or
non-existence of God.

LITTLE GREEN MEN

Suppose Bertrand Russell's parable had concerned not a teapot in
outer space but life in outer space - the subject of Sagan's
memorable refusal to think with his gut. Once again we cannot dis-
prove it, and the only strictly rational stance is agnosticism. But the
hypothesis is no longer frivolous. We don't immediately scent
extreme improbability. We can have an interesting argument based
on incomplete evidence, and we can write down the kind of
evidence that would decrease our uncertainty. We'd be outraged if

70 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
our government invested in expensive telescopes for the sole
purpose of searching for orbiting teapots. But we can appreciate the
case for spending money on SETI, the Search for Extraterrestrial

Intelligence, using radio telescopes to scan the skies in the hope of
picking up signals from intelligent aliens.

I praised Carl Sagan for disavowing gut feelings about alien life.

But one can (and Sagan did) make a sober assessment of what we
would need to know in order to estimate the probability. This
might start from nothing more than a listing of our points of
ignorance, as in the famous Drake Equation which, in Paul Davies's
phrase, collects probabilities. It states that to estimate the number
of independently evolved civilizations in the universe you must
multiply seven terms together. The seven include the number of
stars, the number of Earth-like planets per star, and the probability
of this, that and the other which I need not list because the only
point I am making is that they are all unknown, or estimated with
enormous margins of error. When so many terms that are either
completely or almost completely unknown are multiplied up, the
product - the estimated number of alien civilizations - has such
colossal error bars that agnosticism seems a very reasonable, if not
the only credible stance.

Some of the terms in the Drake Equation are already less
unknown than when he first wrote it down in 1961. At that time,
our solar system of planets orbiting a central star was the only one
known, together with the local analogies provided by Jupiter's and

Saturn's satellite systems. Our best estimate of the number of orbit-
ing systems in the universe was based on theoretical models,
coupled with the more informal 'principle of mediocrity': the feel-
ing (born of uncomfortable history lessons from Copernicus,

Hubble and others) that there should be nothing particularly
unusual about the place where we happen to live. Unfortunately,
the principle of mediocrity is in its turn emasculated by the

'anthropic' principle (see Chapter 4): if our solar system really were
the only one in the universe, this is precisely where we, as beings
who think about such matters, would have to be living. The very
fact of our existence could retrospectively determine that we live in
an extremely unmediocre place.

But today's estimates of the ubiquity of solar systems are no

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 7 1
longer based on the principle of mediocrity; they are informed by
direct evidence. The spectroscope, nemesis of Comte's positivism,
strikes again. Our telescopes are scarcely powerful enough to see
planets around other stars directly. But the position of a star is per-
turbed by the gravitational pull of its planets as they whirl around
it, and spectroscopes can pick up the Doppler shifts in the star's
spectrum, at least in cases where the perturbing planet is large.

Mostly using this method, at the time of writing we now know of

170 extra-solar planets orbiting 147 stars,44 but the figure will
certainly have increased by the time you read this book. So far, they
are bulky 'Jupiters', because only Jupiters are large enough to
perturb their stars into the zone of detectability of present-day
spectroscopes.

We have at least quantitatively improved our estimate of one
previously shrouded term of the Drake Equation. This permits a
significant, if still moderate, easing of our agnosticism about the
final value yielded by the equation. We must still be agnostic about
life on other worlds - but a little bit less agnostic, because we are
just that bit less ignorant. Science can chip away at agnosticism, in
a way that Huxley bent over backwards to deny for the special case
of God. I am arguing that, notwithstanding the polite abstinence of

Huxley, Gould and many others, the God question is not in
principle and forever outside the remit of science. As with the
nature of the stars, contra Comte, and as with the likelihood of life
in orbit around them, science can make at least probabilistic
inroads into the territory of agnosticism.

My definition of the God Hypothesis included the words 'super-
human' and 'supernatural'. To clarify the difference, imagine that a

SETI radio telescope actually did pick up a signal from outer space
which showed, unequivocally, that we are not alone. It is a non-
trivial question, by the way, what kind of signal would convince us
of its intelligent origin. A good approach is to turn the question
around. What should we intelligently do in order to advertise our
presence to extraterrestrial listeners? Rhythmic pulses wouldn't do
it. Jocelyn Bell Burnell, the radio astronomer who first discovered
the pulsar in 1967, was moved by the precision of its 1.33-second
periodicity to name it, tongue in cheek, the LGM (Little Green

Men) signal. She later found a second pulsar, elsewhere in the sky

7 2 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N
and of different periodicity, which pretty much disposed of the

LGM hypothesis. Metronomic rhythms can be generated by many
non-intelligent phenomena, from swaying branches to dripping
water, from time lags in self-regulating feedback loops to spinning
and orbiting celestial bodies. More than a thousand pulsars have
now been found in our galaxy, and it is generally accepted that each
one is a spinning neutron star emitting radio energy that sweeps
around like a lighthouse beam. It is amazing to think of a star
rotating on a timescale of seconds (imagine if each of our days
lasted 1.33 seconds instead of 24 hours), but just about everything
we know of neutron stars is amazing. The point is that the pulsar
phenomenon is now understood as a product of simple physics, not
intelligence.

Nothing simply rhythmic, then, would announce our intelligent
presence to the waiting universe. Prime numbers are often
mentioned as the recipe of choice, since it is difficult to think of a
purely physical process that could generate them. Whether by
detecting prime numbers or by some other means, imagine that

SETI does come up with unequivocal evidence of extraterrestrial
intelligence, followed, perhaps, by a massive transmission of
knowledge and wisdom, along the science-fiction lines of Fred

Hoyle's A for Andromeda or Carl Sagan's Contact. How should we
respond? A pardonable reaction would be something akin to
worship, for any civilization capable of broadcasting a signal over
such an immense distance is likely to be greatly superior to ours.

Even if that civilization is not more advanced than ours at the time
of transmission, the enormous distance between us entitles us to
calculate that they must be millennia ahead of us by the time the
message reaches us (unless they have driven themselves extinct,
which is not unlikely).

Whether we ever get to know about them or not, there are very
probably alien civilizations that are superhuman, to the point of
being god-like in ways that exceed anything a theologian could
possibly imagine. Their technical achievements would seem as
supernatural to us as ours would seem to a Dark Age peasant trans-
ported to the twenty-first century. Imagine his response to a laptop
computer, a mobile telephone, a hydrogen bomb or a jumbo jet. As

Arthur C. Clarke put it, in his Third Law: 'Any sufficiently

T H E G O D H Y P O T H E S I S 7 3
advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic' The miracles
wrought by our technology would have seemed to the ancients no
less remarkable than the tales of Moses parting the waters, or Jesus
walking upon them. The aliens of our SETI signal would be to us
like gods, just as missionaries were treated as gods (and exploited
the undeserved honour to the hilt) when they turned up in Stone

Age cultures bearing guns, telescopes, matches, and almanacs
predicting eclipses to the second.

In what sense, then, would the most advanced SETI aliens not be
gods? In what sense would they be superhuman but not super-
natural? In a very important sense, which goes to the heart of this
book. The crucial difference between gods and god-like extrater-
restrials lies not in their properties but in their provenance. Entities
that are complex enough to be intelligent are products of an
evolutionary process. No matter how god-like they may seem when
we encounter them, they didn't start that way. Science-fiction
authors, such as Daniel F. Galouye in Counterfeit World, have even
suggested (and I cannot think how to disprove it) that we live in a
computer simulation, set up by some vastly superior civilization.

But the simulators themselves would have to come from some-
where. The laws of probability forbid all notions of their
spontaneously appearing without simpler antecedents. They prob-
ably owe their existence to a (perhaps unfamiliar) version of

Darwinian evolution: some sort of cumulatively ratcheting 'crane'

as opposed to 'skyhook', to use Daniel Dennett's terminology.45

Skyhooks - including all gods - are magic spells. They do no bona
fide explanatory work and demand more explanation than they
provide. Cranes are explanatory devices that actually do explain.

Natural selection is the champion crane of all time. It has lifted life
from primeval simplicity to the dizzy heights of complexity, beauty
and apparent design that dazzle us today. This will be a dominant
theme of Chapter 4, 'Why there almost certainly is no God'.

But first, before proceeding with my main reason for actively
disbelieving in God's existence, I have a responsibility to dispose
of the positive arguments for belief that have been offered through
history.

CHAPTER 3

Arguments for

God's existence

A professorship of theology should have no place
in our institution.

THOMAS JEFFERSON

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 7 7

Arguments for the existence of God have been codified for centuries
by theologians, and supplemented by others, including purveyors of
misconceived 'common sense'.

THOMAS AQUINAS' 'PROOFS'

The five 'proofs' asserted by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth
century don't prove anything, and are easily - though I hesitate to
say so, given his eminence - exposed as vacuous. The first three are
just different ways of saying the same thing, and they can be con-
sidered together. All involve an infinite regress - the answer to a
question raises a prior question, and so on ad infinitum.

1 The Unmoved Mover. Nothing moves without a prior mover.

This leads us to a regress, from which the only escape is God.

Something had to make the first move, and that something we
call God.

2 The Uncaused Cause. Nothing is caused by itself. Every effect
has a prior cause, and again we are pushed back into regress.

This has to be terminated by a first cause, which we call

God.

3 The Cosmological Argument. There must have been a time
when no physical things existed. But, since physical things exist
now, there must have been something non-physical to bring
them into existence, and that something we call God.

All three of these arguments rely upon the idea of a regress and
invoke God to terminate it. They make the entirely unwarranted
assumption that God himself is immune to the regress. Even if we
allow the dubious luxury of arbitrarily conjuring up a terminator to
an infinite regress and giving it a name, simply because we need
one, there is absolutely no reason to endow that terminator with
any of the properties normally ascribed to God: omnipotence,
omniscience, goodness, creativity of design, to say nothing of such
human attributes as listening to prayers, forgiving sins and reading

7 8 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
innermost thoughts. Incidentally, it has not escaped the notice of logi-
cians that omniscience and omnipotence are mutually incompatible. If

God is omniscient, he must already know how he is going to intervene
to change the course of history using his omnipotence. But that means
he can't change his mind about his intervention, which means he is not
omnipotent. Karen Owens has captured this witty little paradox in
equally engaging verse:

Can omniscient God, who

Knows the future, find

The omnipotence to

Change His future mind?

To return to the infinite regress and the futility of invoking God
to terminate it, it is more parsimonious to conjure up, say, a 'big
bang singularity', or some other physical concept as yet unknown.

Calling it God is at best unhelpful and at worst perniciously mis-
leading. Edward Lear's Nonsense Recipe for Crumboblious Cutlets
invites us to 'Procure some strips of beef, and having cut them into
the smallest possible pieces, proceed to cut them still smaller, eight
or perhaps nine times.' Some regresses do reach a natural
terminator. Scientists used to wonder what would happen if you
could dissect, say, gold into the smallest possible pieces. Why
shouldn't you cut one of those pieces in half and produce an even
smaller smidgen of gold? The regress in this case is decisively
terminated by the atom. The smallest possible piece of gold is a
nucleus consisting of exactly seventy-nine protons and a slightly
larger number of neutrons, attended by a swarm of seventy-nine
electrons. If you 'cut' gold any further than the level of the single
atom, whatever else you get it is not gold. The atom provides a
natural terminator to the Crumboblious Cutlets type of regress. It
is by no means clear that God provides a natural terminator to the
regresses of Aquinas. That's putting it mildly, as we shall see later.

Let's move on down Aquinas' list.

4 The Argument from Degree. We notice that things in the world
differ. There are degrees of, say, goodness or perfection. But
we judge these degrees only by comparison with a maximum.

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 79

Humans can be both good and bad, so the maximum goodness
cannot rest in us. Therefore there must be some other maxi-
mum to set the standard for perfection, and we call that
maximum God.

That's an argument? You might as well say, people vary in smelli-
ness but we can make the comparison only by reference to a perfect
maximum of conceivable smelliness. Therefore there must exist a
pre-eminently peerless stinker, and we call him God. Or substitute
any dimension of comparison you like, and derive an equivalently
fatuous conclusion.

5 The Teleological Argument, or Argument from Design. Things
in the world, especially living things, look as though they
have been designed. Nothing that we know looks designed
unless it is designed. Therefore there must have been a designer,
and we call him God.* Aquinas himself used the analogy of an
arrow moving towards a target, but a modern heat-seeking
anti-aircraft missile would have suited his purpose better.

The argument from design is the only one still in regular use
today, and it still sounds to many like the ultimate knockdown
argument. The young Darwin was impressed by it when, as a

Cambridge undergraduate, he read it in William Paley's Natural

Theology. Unfortunately for Paley, the mature Darwin blew it out
of the water. There has probably never been a more devastating
rout of popular belief by clever reasoning than Charles Darwin's
destruction of the argument from design. It was so unexpected.

Thanks to Darwin, it is no longer true to say that nothing that we
know looks designed unless it is designed. Evolution by natural
selection produces an excellent simulacrum of design, mounting
prodigious heights of complexity and elegance. And among these
eminences of pseudo-design are nervous systems which - among
their more modest accomplishments - manifest goal-seeking
behaviour that, even in a tiny insect, resembles a sophisticated heat-
seeking missile more than a simple arrow on target. I shall return to
the argument from design in Chapter 4.

* I cannot help being reminded of the immortal syllogism that was smuggled into
a Euclidean proof by a schoolfriend, when we were studying geometry together:

'Triangle ABC looks isosceles. Therefore . . .'

80 T H E G O D D E I, U S I O N

THE ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT AND

OTHER A PRIORI ARGUMENTS

Arguments for God's existence fall into two main categories, the a
priori and the a posteriori. Thomas Aquinas' five are a posteriori
arguments, relying upon inspection of the world. The most famous
of the a priori arguments, those that rely upon pure armchair
ratiocination, is the ontological argument, proposed by St Anselm
of Canterbury in 1078 and restated in different forms by numerous
philosophers ever since. An odd aspect of Anselm's argument is that
it was originally addressed not to humans but to God himself, in
the form of a prayer (you'd think that any entity capable of listen-
ing to a prayer would need no convincing of his own existence).

It is possible to conceive, Anselm said, of a being than which
nothing greater can be conceived. Even an atheist can conceive of
such a superlative being, though he would deny its existence in the
real world. But, goes the argument, a being that doesn't exist in
the real world is, by that very fact, less than perfect. Therefore we
have a contradiction and, hey presto, God exists!

Let me translate this infantile argument into the appropriate
language, which is the language of the playground:

'Bet you I can prove God exists.'

'Bet you can't.'

'Right then, imagine the most perfect perfect perfect
thing possible.'

'Okay, now what?'

'Now, is that perfect perfect perfect thing real? Does it
exist?'

'No, it's only in my mind.'

'But if it was real it would be even more perfect,
because a really really perfect thing would have to be
better than a silly old imaginary thing. So I've proved that

God exists. Nur Nurny Nur Nur. All atheists are fools.'

I had my childish wiseacre choose the word 'fools' advisedly.

Anselm himself quoted the first verse of Psalm 14, 'The fool hath

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 8 1
said in his heart, There is no God,' and he had the cheek to use the
name 'fool' (Latin insipiens) for his hypothetical atheist:

Hence, even the fool is convinced that something exists in
the understanding, at least, than which nothing greater
can be conceived. For, when he hears of this, he under-
stands it. And whatever is understood, exists in the
understanding. And assuredly that, than which nothing
greater can be conceived, cannot exist in the understand-
ing alone. For, suppose it exists in the understanding
alone: then it can be conceived to exist in reality; which is
greater.

The very idea that grand conclusions could follow from such logo-
machist trickery offends me aesthetically, so I must take care to
refrain from bandying words like 'fool'. Bertrand Russell (no fool)

interestingly said, 'It is easier to feel convinced that [the ontological
argument] must be fallacious than it is to find out precisely where
the fallacy lies.' Russell himself, as a young man, was briefly
convinced by it:

I remember the precise moment, one day in 1894, as I was
walking along Trinity Lane, when I saw in a flash (or
thought I saw) that the ontological argument is valid. I
had gone out to buy a tin of tobacco; on my way back, I
suddenly threw it up in the air, and exclaimed as I caught
it: 'Great Scott, the ontological argument is sound.'

Why, I wonder, didn't he say something like: 'Great Scott, the
ontological argument seems to be plausible. But isn't it too good to
be true that a grand truth about the cosmos should follow from a
mere word game? I'd better set to work to resolve what is perhaps
a paradox like those of Zeno.' The Greeks had a hard time seeing
through Zeno's 'proof that Achilles would never catch the
tortoise.* But they had the sense not to conclude that therefore

* Zeno's paradox is too well known for the details to be promoted out of a foot-
note. Achilles can run ten times as fast as the tortoise, so he gives the animal, say,

100 yards' start. Achilles runs 100 yards, and the tortoise is now 10 yards ahead.

Achilles runs the 10 yards and the tortoise is now 1 yard ahead. Achilles runs the

1 yard, and the tortoise is still a tenth of a yard ahead . . . and so on ad infinitum,
so Achilles never catches the tortoise.

82 T If E G O D D E L U S I O N

Achilles really would fail to catch the tortoise. Instead, they called
it a paradox and waited for later generations of mathematicians to
explain it (with, as it turned out, the theory of infinite series con-
verging on a limiting value). Russell himself, of course, was as well
qualified as anyone to understand why no tobacco tins should be
thrown up in celebration of Achilles' failure to catch the tortoise.

Why didn't he exercise the same caution over St Anselm? I suspect
that he was an exaggeratedly fair-minded atheist, over-eager to be
disillusioned if logic seemed to require it.* Or perhaps the answer
lies in something Russell himself wrote in 1946, long after he had
rumbled the ontological argument:

The real question is: Is there anything we can think of
which, by the mere fact that we can think of it, is shown
to exist outside our thought? Every philosopher would
like to say yes, because a philosopher's job is to find out
things about the world by thinking rather than observing.

If yes is the right answer, there is a bridge from pure
thought to things. If not, not.

My own feeling, to the contrary, would have been an automatic,
deep suspicion of any line of reasoning that reached such a signifi-
cant conclusion without feeding in a single piece of data from the
real world. Perhaps that indicates no more than that I am a scientist
rather than a philosopher. Philosophers down the centuries have
indeed taken the ontological argument seriously, both for and
against. The atheist philosopher J. L. Mackie gives a particularly

* We might be seeing something similar today in the over-publicized tergiversation
of the philosopher Antony Flew, who announced in his old age that he had been
converted to belief in some sort of deity (triggering a frenzy of eager repetition all
around the Internet). On the other hand, Russell was a great philosopher. Russell
won the Nobel Prize. Maybe Flew's alleged conversion will be rewarded with the

Templeton Prize. A first step in that direction is his ignominious decision to accept,
in 2006, the 'Phillip E. Johnson Award for Liberty and Truth'. The first holder
of the Phillip E. Johnson Award was Phillip E. Johnson, the lawyer credited
with founding the Intelligent Design 'wedge strategy'. Flew will be the second
holder. The awarding university is BIOLA, the Bible Institute of Los Angeles.

One can't help wondering whether Flew realizes that he is being used. See

Victor Stenger, 'Flew's flawed science', Free Inquiry 25: 2, 2005, 17-18;
www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=stenger_25_2.

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 83
clear discussion in The Miracle of Theism. I mean it as a compli-
ment when I say that you could almost define a philosopher as
someone who won't take common sense for an answer.

The most definitive refutations of the ontological argument are
usually attributed to the philosophers David Hume (1711-76) and

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant identified the trick card up

Anselm's sleeve as his slippery assumption that 'existence' is more

'perfect' than non-existence. The American philosopher Norman

Malcolm put it like this: 'The doctrine that existence is a perfection
is remarkably queer. It makes sense and is true to say that my future
house will be a better one if it is insulated than if it is not insulated;
but what could it mean to say that it will be a better house if it
exists than if it does not?'46 Another philosopher, the Australian

Douglas Gasking, made the point with his ironic 'proof that God
does not exist (Anselm's contemporary Gaunilo had suggested a
somewhat similar reductio).

1 The creation of the world is the most marvellous achievement
imaginable.

2 The merit of an achievement is the product of (a) its intrinsic
quality, and (b) the ability of its creator.

3 The greater the disability (or handicap) of the creator, the more
impressive the achievement.

4 The most formidable handicap for a creator would be non-
existence.

5 Therefore if we suppose that the universe is the product of an
existent creator we can conceive a greater being - namely, one
who created everything while not existing.

6 An existing God therefore would not be a being greater than
which a greater cannot be conceived because an even more for-
midable and incredible creator would be a God which did not
exist.

Ergo:

7 God does not exist.

84 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Needless to say, Gasking didn't really prove that God does not
exist. By the same token, Anselm didn't prove that he does. The
only difference is, Gasking was being funny on purpose. As he
realized, the existence or non-existence of God is too big a question
to be decided by 'dialectical prestidigitation'. And I don't think the
slippery use of existence as an indicator of perfection is the worst
of the argument's problems. I've forgotten the details, but I once
piqued a gathering of theologians and philosophers by adapting the
ontological argument to prove that pigs can fly. They felt the need
to resort to Modal Logic to prove that I was wrong.

The ontological argument, like all a priori arguments for the
existence of God, reminds me of the old man in Aldous Huxley's

Point Counter Point who discovered a mathematical proof of the
existence of God:

You know the formula, m over nought equals infinity, m
being any positive number? Well, why not reduce the
equation to a simpler form by multiplying both sides by
nought. In which case you have m equals infinity times
nought. That is to say that a positive number is the prod-
uct of zero and infinity. Doesn't that demonstrate the
creation of the universe by an infinite power out of no-
thing? Doesn't it?

Or there is the notorious eighteenth-century debate on the existence
of God, staged by Catherine the Great between Euler, the Swiss
mathematician, and Diderot, the great encyclopedist of the

Enlightenment. The pious Euler advanced upon the atheistic

Diderot and, in tones of the utmost conviction, delivered his
challenge: 'Monsieur, (a + bn)/n = x, therefore God exists. Reply!'

Diderot was cowed into withdrawal, and one version of the story
has him withdrawing all the way back to France.

Euler was employing what might be called the Argument from

Blinding with Science (in this case mathematics). David Mills, in

Atheist Universe, transcribes a radio interview of himself by a
religious spokesman, who invoked the Law of Conservation of

Mass-Energy in a weirdly ineffectual attempt to blind with science:

'Since we're all composed of matter and energy, doesn't that

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 85
scientific principle lend credibility to a belief in eternal life?' Mills
replied more patiently and politely than I would have, for what the
interviewer was saying, translated into English, was no more than:

'When we die, none of the atoms of our body (and none of the
energy) are lost. Therefore we are immortal.'

Even I, with my long experience, have never encountered wishful
thinking as silly as that. I have, however, met many of the wonder-
ful 'proofs' collected at http://www.godlessgeeks.com/LINKS/

GodProof.htm, a richly comic numbered list of 'Over Three

Hundred Proofs of God's Existence'. Here's a hilarious half-dozen,
beginning with Proof Number 36.

36 Argument from Incomplete Devastation: A plane crashed
killing 143 passengers and crew. But one child survived
with only third-degree burns. Therefore God exists.

37 Argument from Possible Worlds: If things had been
different, then things would be different. That would be
bad. Therefore God exists.

38 Argument from Sheer Will: I do believe in God! I do
believe in God! I do I do I do. I do believe in God!

Therefore God exists.

39 Argument from Non-belief: The majority of the world's
population are non-believers in Christianity. This is just
what Satan intended. Therefore God exists.

40 Argument from Post-Death Experience: Person X died an
atheist. He now realizes his mistake. Therefore God exists.

41 Argument from Emotional Blackmail: God loves you.

How could you be so heartless as not to believe in him?

Therefore God exists.

8 6 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

THE ARGUMENT FROM BEAUTY

Another character in the Aldous Huxley novel just mentioned
proved the existence of God by playing Beethoven's string quartet
no. 15 in A minor ('heiliger Dankgesang') on a gramophone.

Unconvincing as that sounds, it does represent a popular strand of
argument. I have given up counting the number of times I receive
the more or less truculent challenge: 'How do you account for

Shakespeare, then?' (Substitute Schubert, Michelangelo, etc. to
taste.) The argument will be so familiar, I needn't document it
further. But the logic behind it is never spelled out, and the more
you think about it the more vacuous you realize it to be. Obviously

Beethoven's late quartets are sublime. So are Shakespeare's sonnets.

They are sublime if God is there and they are sublime if he isn't. They
do not prove the existence of God; they prove the existence of

Beethoven and of Shakespeare. A great conductor is credited with
saying: 'If you have Mozart to listen to, why would you need God?'

I once was the guest of the week on a British radio show called

Desert Island Discs. You have to choose the eight records you
would take with you if marooned on a desert island. Among my
choices was 'Mache dich mein Herze rein' from Bach's St Matthew

Passion. The interviewer was unable to understand how I could
choose religious music without being religious. You might as well
say, how can you enjoy Wuthering Heights when you know per-
fectly well that Cathy and Heathcliff never really existed?

But there is an additional point that I might have made, and
which needs to be made whenever religion is given credit for, say,
the Sistine Chapel or Raphael's Annunciation. Even great artists
have to earn a living, and they will take commissions where they
are to be had. I have no reason to doubt that Raphael and

Michelangelo were Christians - it was pretty much the only option
in their time - but the fact is almost incidental. Its enormous wealth
had made the Church the dominant patron of the arts. If
history had worked out differently, and Michelangelo had been
commissioned to paint a ceiling for a giant Museum of Science,
mightn't he have produced something at least as inspirational as the

Sistine Chapel? How sad that we shall never hear Beethoven's

Mesozoic Symphony, or Mozart's opera The Expanding Universe.

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C F , 8 7

And what a shame that we are deprived of Haydn's Evolution

Oratorio - but that does not stop us from enjoying his Creation. To
approach the argument from the other side, what if, as my wife
chillingly suggests to me, Shakespeare had been obliged to work to
commissions from the Church? We'd surely have lost Hamlet, King

Lear and Macbeth. And what would we have gained in return?

Such stuff as dreams are made on? Dream on.

If there is a logical argument linking the existence of great art to
the existence of God, it is not spelled out by its proponents. It is
simply assumed to be self-evident, which it most certainly is not.

Maybe it is to be seen as yet another version of the argument from
design: Schubert's musical brain is a wonder of improbability, even
more so than the vertebrate's eye. Or, more ignobly, perhaps it's
a sort of jealousy of genius. How dare another human being
make such beautiful music/poetry/art, when I can't? It must be God
that did it.

THE ARGUMENT FROM PERSONAL

'EXPERIENCE'

One of the cleverer and more mature of my undergraduate con-
temporaries, who was deeply religious, went camping in the

Scottish isles. In the middle of the night he and his girlfriend were
woken in their tent by the voice of the devil - Satan himself; there
could be no possible doubt: the voice was in every sense diabolical.

My friend would never forget this horrifying experience, and it was
one of the factors that later drove him to be ordained. My youthful
self was impressed by his story, and I recounted it to a gathering
of zoologists relaxing in the Rose and Crown Inn, Oxford. Two of
them happened to be experienced ornithologists, and they roared
with laughter. 'Manx Shearwater!' they shouted in delighted
chorus. One of them added that the diabolical shrieks and cackles
of this species have earned it, in various parts of the world and
various languages, the local nickname 'Devil Bird'.

Many people believe in God because they believe they have seen

88 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N
a vision of him - or of an angel or a virgin in blue - with their own
eyes. Or he speaks to them inside their heads. This argument from
personal experience is the one that is most convincing to those who
claim to have had one. But it is the least convincing to anyone else,
and anyone knowledgeable about psychology.

You say you have experienced God directly? Well, some people
have experienced a pink elephant, but that probably doesn't
impress you. Peter Sutcliffe, the Yorkshire Ripper, distinctly heard
the voice of Jesus telling him to kill women, and he was locked up
for life. George W. Bush says that God told him to invade Iraq (a
pity God didn't vouchsafe him a revelation that there were no
weapons of mass destruction). Individuals in asylums think they are

Napoleon or Charlie Chaplin, or that the entire world is conspiring
against them, or that they can broadcast their thoughts into other
people's heads. We humour them but don't take their internally
revealed beliefs seriously, mostly because not many people share
them. Religious experiences are different only in that the people
who claim them are numerous. Sam Harris was not being overly
cynical when he wrote, in The End of Faith:

We have names for people who have many beliefs for
which there is no rational justification. When their beliefs
are extremely common we call them 'religious'; otherwise,
they are likely to be called 'mad', 'psychotic' or

'delusional' . . . Clearly there is sanity in numbers. And
yet, it is merely an accident of history that it is considered
normal in our society to believe that the Creator of the
universe can hear your thoughts, while it is demonstrative
of mental illness to believe that he is communicating with
you by having the rain tap in Morse code on your bed-
room window. And so, while religious people are not
generally mad, their core beliefs absolutely are.

I shall return to the subject of hallucinations in Chapter 10.

The human brain runs first-class simulation software. Our eyes
don't present to our brains a faithful photograph of what is out
there, or an accurate movie of what is going on through time. Our
brains construct a continuously updated model: updated by coded

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 8 9
pulses chattering along the optic nerve, but constructed never-
theless. Optical illusions are vivid reminders of this.47 A major class
of illusions, of which the Necker Cube is an example, arise because
the sense data that the brain receives are compatible with two alter-
native models of reality. The brain, having no basis for choosing
between them, alternates, and we experience a series of flips from
one internal model to the other. The picture we are looking at
appears, almost literally, to flip over and become something else.

The simulation software in the brain is especially adept at con-
structing faces and voices. I have on my windowsill a plastic mask
of Einstein. When seen from the front, it looks like a solid face, not
surprisingly. What is surprising is that, when seen from behind - the
hollow side - it also looks like a solid face, and our perception of it
is very odd indeed. As the viewer moves around, the face seems to
follow - and not in the weak, unconvincing sense that the Mona

Lisa's eyes are said to follow you. The hollow mask really really
looks as though it is moving. People who haven't previously seen
the illusion gasp with amazement. Even stranger, if the mask is
mounted on a slowly rotating turntable, it appears to turn in the
correct direction when you are looking at the solid side, but in
the opposite direction when the hollow side comes into view. The
result is that, when you watch the transition from one side to the
other, the coming side appears to 'eat' the going side. It is a
stunning illusion, well worth going to some trouble to see.

Sometimes you can get surprisingly close to the hollow face and still
not see that it is 'really' hollow. When you do see it, again there is
a sudden flip, which may be reversible.

Why does it happen? There is no trick in the construction of the
mask. Any hollow mask will do it. The trickery is all in the brain of
the beholder. The internal simulating software receives data
indicating the presence of a face, perhaps nothing more than a pair
of eyes, a nose and a mouth in approximately the right places.

Having received these sketchy clues, the brain does the rest. The
face simulation software kicks into action and it constructs a fully
solid model of a face, even though the reality presented to the eyes
is a hollow mask. The illusion of rotation in the wrong direction
comes about because (it's quite hard, but if you think it through
carefully you will confirm it) reverse rotation is the only way to

90 T H E C, O D D E L U S I O N
make sense of the optical data when a hollow mask rotates while
being perceived to be a solid mask.48 It is like the illusion of a
rotating radar dish that you sometimes see at airports. Until the
brain flips to the correct model of the radar dish, an incorrect
model is seen rotating in the wrong direction but in a weirdly cock-
eyed way.

I say all this just to demonstrate the formidable power of the
brain's simulation software. It is well capable of constructing

'visions' and 'visitations' of the utmost veridical power. To simulate
a ghost or an angel or a Virgin Mary would be child's play to soft-
ware of this sophistication. And the same thing works for hearing.

When we hear a sound, it is not faithfully transported up the
auditory nerve and relayed to the brain as if by a high-fidelity Bang
and Olufsen. As with vision, the brain constructs a sound model,
based upon continuously updated auditory nerve data. That is why
we hear a trumpet blast as a single note, rather than as the com-
posite of pure-tone harmonics that gives it its brassy snarl. A
clarinet playing the same note sounds 'woody', and an oboe sounds

'reedy', because of different balances of harmonics. If you carefully
manipulate a sound synthesizer to bring in the separate harmonics
one by one, the brain hears them as a combination of pure tones for
a short while, until its simulation software 'gets it', and from then
on we experience only a single note of pure trumpet or oboe or
whatever it is. The vowels and consonants of speech are con-
structed in the brain in the same kind of way, and so, at another
level, are higher-order phonemes and words.

Once, as a child, I heard a ghost: a male voice murmuring, as if
in recitation or prayer. I could almost, but not quite, make out the
words, which seemed to have a serious, solemn timbre. I had been
told stories of priest holes in ancient houses, and I was a little
frightened. But I got out of bed and crept up on the source of the
sound. As I got closer, it grew louder, and then suddenly it 'flipped'

inside my head. I was now close enough to discern what it really
was. The wind, gusting through the keyhole, was creating sounds
which the simulation software in my brain had used to construct a
model of male speech, solemnly intoned. Had I been a more im-
pressionable child, it is possible that I would have 'heard' not just
unintelligible speech but particular words and even sentences. And

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 91
had I been both impressionable and religiously brought up, I
wonder what words the wind might have spoken.

On another occasion, when I was about the same age, I saw a
giant round face gazing, with unspeakable malevolence, out
through the window of an otherwise ordinary house in a seaside
village. In trepidation, I approached until I was close enough to see
what it really was: just a vaguely face-like pattern created by the
chance fall of the curtains. The face itself, and its evil mien, had
been constructed in my fearful child's brain. On 11 September

2001, pious people thought they saw the face of Satan in the smoke
rising from the Twin Towers: a superstition backed by a photo-
graph which was published on the Internet and widely circulated.

Constructing models is something the human brain is very good
at. When we are asleep it is called dreaming; when we are awake
we call it imagination or, when it is exceptionally vivid, hallucin-
ation. As Chapter 10 will show, children who have 'imaginary
friends' sometimes see them clearly, exactly as if they were real. If
we are gullible, we don't recognize hallucination or lucid dreaming
for what it is and we claim to have seen or heard a ghost; or an
angel; or God; or - especially if we happen to be young, female and

Catholic - the Virgin Mary. Such visions and manifestations are
certainly not good grounds for believing that ghosts or angels, gods
or virgins, are actually there.

On the face of it mass visions, such as the report that seventy
thousand pilgrims at Fatima in Portugal in 1917 saw the sun 'tear
itself from the heavens and come crashing down upon the
multitude',49 are harder to write off. It is not easy to explain how
seventy thousand people could share the same hallucination. But it
is even harder to accept that it really happened without the rest of
the world, outside Fatima, seeing it too - and not just seeing it, but
feeling it as the catastrophic destruction of the solar system, includ-
ing acceleration forces sufficient to hurl everybody into space.

David Hume's pithy test for a miracle comes irresistibly to mind:

'No testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle, unless the
testimony be of such a kind, that its falsehood would be more
miraculous than the fact which it endeavours to establish.'

It may seem improbable that seventy thousand people could
simultaneously be deluded, or could simultaneously collude in a

9 2 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
mass lie. Or that history is mistaken in recording that seventy
thousand people claimed to see the sun dance. Or that they all
simultaneously saw a mirage (they had been persuaded to stare at
the sun, which can't have done much for their eyesight). But any of
those apparent improbabilities is far more probable than the alter-
native: that the Earth was suddenly yanked sideways in its orbit,
and the solar system destroyed, with nobody outside Fatima
noticing. I mean, Portugal is not that isolated.*

That is really all that needs to be said about personal

'experiences' of gods or other religious phenomena. If you've had
such an experience, you may well find yourself believing firmly that
it was real. But don't expect the rest of us to take your word for it,
especially if we have the slightest familiarity with the brain and its
powerful workings.

THE ARGUMENT FROM SCRIPTURE

There are still some people who are persuaded by scriptural
evidence to believe in God. A common argument, attributed among
others to C. S. Lewis (who should have known better), states that,
since Jesus claimed to be the Son of God, he must have been either
right or else insane or a liar: 'Mad, Bad or God'. Or, with artless
alliteration, 'Lunatic, Liar or Lord'. The historical evidence that

Jesus claimed any sort of divine status is minimal. But even if that
evidence were good, the trilemma on offer would be ludicrously
inadequate. A fourth possibility, almost too obvious to need
mentioning, is that Jesus was honestly mistaken. Plenty of people
are. In any case, as I said, there is no good historical evidence that
he ever thought he was divine.

The fact that something is written down is persuasive to people
not used to asking questions like: 'Who wrote it, and when?' 'How
did they know what to write?' 'Did they, in their time, really mean
what we, in our time, understand them to be saying?' 'Were they
unbiased observers, or did they have an agenda that coloured their
writing?' Ever since the nineteenth century, scholarly theologians
have made an overwhelming case that the gospels are not reliable

* Although admittedly my wife's parents once stayed in a Paris hotel called the

Hotel de I'Univers et du Portugal.

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 93
accounts of what happened in the history of the real world. All
were written long after the death of Jesus, and also after the epis-
tles of Paul, which mention almost none of the alleged facts of

Jesus' life. All were then copied and recopied, through many
different 'Chinese Whispers generations' (see Chapter 5) by fallible
scribes who, in any case, had their own religious agendas.

A good example of the colouring by religious agendas is the
whole heart-warming legend of Jesus' birth in Bethlehem, followed
by Herod's massacre of the innocents. When the gospels were
written, many years after Jesus' death, nobody knew where he was
born. But an Old Testament prophecy (Micah 5:2) had led Jews to
expect that the long-awaited Messiah would be born in Bethlehem.

In the light of this prophecy, John's gospel specifically remarks that
his followers were surprised that he was not born in Bethlehem:

'Others said, This is the Christ. But some said, Shall Christ come
out of Galilee? Hath not the scripture said, That Christ cometh of
the seed of David, and out of the town of Bethlehem, where David
was?'

Matthew and Luke handle the problem differently, by deciding
that Jesus must have been born in Bethlehem after all. But they get
him there by different routes. Matthew has Mary and Joseph in

Bethlehem all along, moving to Nazareth only long after the birth
of Jesus, on their return from Egypt where they fled from King

Herod and the massacre of the innocents. Luke, by contrast,
acknowledges that Mary and Joseph lived in Nazareth before Jesus
was born. So how to get them to Bethlehem at the crucial moment,
in order to fulfil the prophecy? Luke says that, in the time when

Cyrenius (Quirinius) was governor of Syria, Caesar Augustus
decreed a census for taxation purposes, and everybody had to go 'to
his own city'. Joseph was 'of the house and lineage of David' and
therefore he had to go to 'the city of David, which is called

Bethlehem'. That must have seemed like a good solution. Except
that historically it is complete nonsense, as A. N. Wilson in Jesus
and Robin Lane Fox in The Unauthorized Version (among others)

have pointed out. David, if he existed, lived nearly a thousand years
before Mary and Joseph. Why on earth would the Romans have
required Joseph to go to the city where a remote ancestor had lived
a millennium earlier? It is as though I were required to specify, say,

94 T H F. G O D D E I, U S I O N

Ashby-de-la-Zouch as my home town on a census form, if it
happened that I could trace my ancestry back to the Seigneur de

Dakeyne, who came over with William the Conqueror and settled
there.

Moreover, Luke screws up his dating by tactlessly mentioning
events that historians are capable of independently checking. There
was indeed a census under Governor Quirinius - a local census, not
one decreed by Caesar Augustus for the Empire as a whole - but it
happened too late: in AD 6, long after Herod's death. Lane Fox
concludes that 'Luke's story is historically impossible and internally
incoherent', but he sympathizes with Luke's plight and his desire to
fulfil the prophecy of Micah.

In the December 2004 issue of Free Inquiry, Tom Flynn, the

Editor of that excellent magazine, assembled a collection of articles
documenting the contradictions and gaping holes in the well-loved

Christmas story. Flynn himself lists the many contradictions
between Matthew and Luke, the only two evangelists who treat the
birth of Jesus at all.50 Robert Gillooly shows how all the essential
features of the Jesus legend, including the star in the east, the virgin
birth, the veneration of the baby by kings, the miracles, the
execution, the resurrection and the ascension are borrowed - every
last one of them - from other religions already in existence in the

Mediterranean and Near East region. Flynn suggests that

Matthew's desire to fulfil messianic prophecies (descent from

David, birth in Bethlehem) for the benefit of Jewish readers came
into headlong collision with Luke's desire to adapt Christianity for
the Gentiles, and hence to press the familiar hot buttons of pagan

Hellenistic religions (virgin birth, worship by kings, etc.). The
resulting contradictions are glaring, but consistently overlooked by
the faithful.

Sophisticated Christians do not need George Gershwin to
convince them that 'The things that you're li'ble / To read in the

Bible / It ain't necessarily so'. But there are many unsophisticated

Christians out there who think it absolutely is necessarily so - who
take the Bible very seriously indeed as a literal and accurate record
of history and hence as evidence supporting their religious beliefs.

Do these people never open the book that they believe is the literal
truth? Why don't they notice those glaring contradictions?

A R C U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 9 5

Shouldn't a literalist worry about the fact that Matthew traces

Joseph's descent from King David via twenty-eight intermediate
generations, while Luke has forty-one generations? Worse, there is
almost no overlap in the names on the two lists! In any case, if Jesus
really was born of a virgin, Joseph's ancestry is irrelevant and can-
not be used to fulfil, on Jesus' behalf, the Old Testament prophecy
that the Messiah should be descended from David.

The American biblical scholar Bart Ehrman, in a book whose
subtitle is The Story Behind Who Changed the New Testament and

Why, unfolds the huge uncertainty befogging the New Testament
texts. * In the introduction to the book, Professor Ehrman movingly
charts his personal educational journey from Bible-believing funda-
mentalist to thoughtful sceptic, a journey driven by his dawning
realization of the massive fallibility of the scriptures. Significantly,
as he moved up the hierarchy of American universities, from rock
bottom at the 'Moody Bible Institute', through Wheaton College (a
little bit higher on the scale, but still the alma mater of Billy

Graham) to Princeton in the world-beating class at the top, he was
at every step warned that he would have trouble maintaining his
fundamentalist Christianity in the face of dangerous progressivism.

So it proved; and we, his readers, are the beneficiaries. Other
refreshingly iconoclastic books of biblical criticism are Robin Lane

Fox's The Unauthorized Version, already mentioned, and Jacques

Berlinerblau's The Secular Bible: Why Nonbelievers Must Take

Religion Seriously.

The four gospels that made it into the official canon were cho-
sen, more or less arbitrarily, out of a larger sample of at least a
dozen including the Gospels of Thomas, Peter, Nicodemus, Philip,

Bartholomew and Mary Magdalen.51 It is these additional gospels
that Thomas Jefferson was referring to in his letter to his nephew:

I forgot to observe, when speaking of the New Testament,
that you should read all the histories of Christ, as well of

* I give the subtitle because that is all I am confident of. The main title of my copy
of the book, published by Continuum of London, is Whose Word Is It?

I can find nothing in this edition to say whether it is the same book as the

American publication by Harper San Francisco, which I haven't seen, whose
main title is Misquoting Jesus. I presume they are the same book, but why do
publishers do this kind of thing?

9 6 T H E G O D D E L U S I G N
those whom a council of ecclesiastics have decided for us,
to be Pseudo-evangelists, as those they named Evangelists.

Because these Pseudo-evangelists pretended to inspiration,
as much as the others, and you are to judge their
pretensions by your own reason, and not by the reason of
those ecclesiastics.

The gospels that didn't make it were omitted by those
ecclesiastics perhaps because they included stories that were even
more embarrassingly implausible than those in the four canonical
ones. The Gospel of Thomas, for example, has numerous anecdotes
about the child Jesus abusing his magical powers in the manner of
a mischievous fairy, impishly transforming his playmates into goats,
or turning mud into sparrows, or giving his father a hand with the
carpentry by miraculously lengthening a piece of wood. * It will be
said that nobody believes crude miracle stories such as those in the

Gospel of Thomas anyway. But there is no more and no less reason
to believe the four canonical gospels. All have the status of legends,
as factually dubious as the stories of King Arthur and his Knights
of the Round Table.

Most of what the four canonical gospels share is derived from a
common source, either Mark's gospel or a lost work of which Mark
is the earliest extant descendant. Nobody knows who the four
evangelists were, but they almost certainly never met Jesus person-
ally. Much of what they wrote was in no sense an honest attempt
at history but was simply rehashed from the Old Testament,
because the gospel-makers were devoutly convinced that the life of

* A. N. Wilson, in his biography of Jesus, casts doubt on the story that Joseph was
a carpenter at all. The Greek word tekton does indeed mean carpenter, but it was
translated from the Aramaic word naggar, which could mean craftsman or learned
man. This is one of several constructive mistranslations that bedevil the Bible, the
most famous being the mistranslation of Isaiah's Hebrew for young woman

(almah) into the Greek for virgin (parthenos). An easy mistake to make (think of the English words 'maid' and 'maiden' to see how it might have happened), this
one translator's slip was to be wildly inflated and give rise to the whole prepos-
terous legend of Jesus' mother being a virgin! The only competitor for the title of
champion constructive mistranslation of all time also concerns virgins. Ibn Warraq
has hilariously argued that in the famous promise of seventy-two virgins to every

Muslim martyr, 'virgins' is a mistranslation of 'white raisins of crystal clarity'.

Now, if only that had been more widely known, how many innocent victims of sui-
cide missions might have been saved? (Ibn Warraq, 'Virgins? What virgins?', Free

Inquiry 26: 1, 2006, 45-6.)

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 9 7

Jesus must fulfil Old Testament prophecies. It is even possible to
mount a serious, though not widely supported, historical case that

Jesus never lived at all, as has been done by, among others,

Professor G. A. Wells of the University of London in a number of
books, including Did Jesus Exist?.

Although Jesus probably existed, reputable biblical scholars do
not in general regard the New Testament (and obviously not the

Old Testament) as a reliable record of what actually happened in
history, and I shall not consider the Bible further as evidence for any
kind of deity. In the farsighted words of Thomas Jefferson, writing
to his predecessor, John Adams, 'The day will come when the
mystical generation of Jesus, by the Supreme Being as his father, in
the womb of a virgin, will be classed with the fable of the gener-
ation of Minerva in the brain of Jupiter.'

Dan Brown's novel The Da Vinci Code, and the film made from
it, are arousing huge controversy in church circles. Christians are
encouraged to boycott the film and picket cinemas that show it. It
is indeed fabricated from start to finish: invented, made-up fiction.

In that respect, it is exactly like the gospels. The only difference
between The Da Vinci Code and the gospels is that the gospels are
ancient fiction while The Da Vinci Code is modern fiction.

THE ARGUMENT FROM ADMIRED

RELIGIOUS SCIENTISTS

The immense majority of intellectually eminent men
disbelieve in Christian religion, but they conceal the
fact in public, because they are afraid of losing their
incomes.

B E R T R A N D R U S S E L L

'Newton was religious. Who are you to set yourself up as superior
to Newton, Galileo, Kepler, etc. etc. etc.? If God was good enough
for the likes of them, just who do you think you are?' Not that it
makes much difference to such an already bad argument, some

98 T II E C; O D D E L U S I O N
apologists even add the name of Darwin, about whom persistent,
but demonstrably false, rumours of a deathbed conversion con-
tinually come around like a bad smell,* ever since they were
deliberately started by a certain 'Lady Hope', who spun a touching
yarn of Darwin resting against the pillows in the evening light, leaf-
ing through the New Testament and confessing that evolution was
all wrong. In this section I shall concentrate mostly on scientists,
because - for reasons that are perhaps not too hard to imagine -
those who trot out the names of admired individuals as religious
exemplars very commonly choose scientists.

Newton did indeed claim to be religious. So did almost every-
body until - significantly I think - the nineteenth century, when
there was less social and judicial pressure than in earlier centuries
to profess religion, and more scientific support for abandoning it.

There have been exceptions, of course, in both directions. Even
before Darwin, not everybody was a believer, as James Haught
shows in his 2000 Years of Disbelief: Famous People with the

Courage to Doubt. And some distinguished scientists went on
believing after Darwin. We have no reason to doubt Michael

Faraday's sincerity as a Christian even after the time when he must
have known of Darwin's work. He was a member of the

Sandemanian sect, which believed (past tense because they are now
virtually extinct) in a literal interpretation of the Bible, ritually
washed the feet of newly inducted members and drew lots to deter-
mine God's will. Faraday became an Elder in 1860, the year after

The Origin of Species was published, and he died a Sandemanian in

1867. The experimentalist Faraday's theorist counterpart, James

Clerk Maxwell, was an equally devout Christian. So was that other
pillar of nineteenth-century British physics, William Thomson,

Lord Kelvin, who tried to demonstrate that evolution was ruled out
for lack of time. That great thermodynamicist's erroneous datings
assumed that the sun was some kind of fire, burning fuel which
would have to run out in tens of millions of years, not thousands of
millions. Kelvin obviously could not be expected to know about

* Even I have been honoured by prophecies of deathbed conversion. Indeed, they
recur with monotonous regularity (see e.g. Steer 2003), each repetition trailing
dewy fresh clouds of illusion that it is witty, and the first. I should probably take
the precaution of installing a tape-recorder to protect my posthumous reputation.

Lalla Ward adds, 'Why mess around with deathbeds? If you're going to sell out,
do it in good time to win the Templeton Prize and blame it on senility.'

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 9 9
nuclear energy. Pleasingly, at the British Association meeting of

1903, it fell to Sir George Darwin, Charles's second son, to
vindicate his un-knighted father by invoking the Curies' discovery
of radium, and confound the earlier estimate of the still living Lord

Kelvin.

Great scientists who profess religion become harder to find
through the twentieth century, but they are not particularly rare. I
suspect that most of the more recent ones are religious only in the

Einsteinian sense which, I argued in Chapter 1, is a misuse of the
word. Nevertheless, there are some genuine specimens of good
scientists who are sincerely religious in the full, traditional sense.

Among contemporary British scientists, the same three names crop
up with the likeable familiarity of senior partners in a firm of

Dickensian lawyers: Peacocke, Stannard and Polkinghorne. All three
have either won the Templeton Prize or are on the Templeton Board
of Trustees. After amicable discussions with all of them, both in pub-
lic and in private, I remain baffled, not so much by their belief in a
cosmic lawgiver of some kind, as by their belief in the details of the

Christian religion: resurrection, forgiveness of sins and all.

There are some corresponding examples in the United States, for
example Francis Collins, administrative head of the American
branch of the official Human Genome Project.* But, as in Britain,
they stand out for their rarity and are a subject of amused baffle-
ment to their peers in the academic community. In 1996, in the
gardens of his old college at Cambridge, Clare, I interviewed my
friend Jim Watson, founding genius of the Human Genome Project,
for a BBC television documentary that I was making on Gregor

Mendel, founding genius of genetics itself. Mendel, of course, was
a religious man, an Augustinian monk; but that was in the nine-
teenth century, when becoming a monk was the easiest way for the
young Mendel to pursue his science. For him, it was the equivalent
of a research grant. I asked Watson whether he knew many
religious scientists today. He replied: 'Virtually none. Occasionally

I meet them, and I'm a bit embarrassed [laughs] because, you know,

I can't believe anyone accepts truth by revelation.'

Francis Crick, Watson's co-founder of the whole molecular
genetics revolution, resigned his fellowship at Churchill College,

* Not to be confused with the unofficial human genome project, led by that bril-
liant (and non-religious) 'buccaneer' of science, Craig Venter.

100 T H E O O D D E L U >S 1 O N

Cambridge, because of the college's decision to build a chapel (at
the behest of a benefactor). In my interview with Watson at Clare,

I conscientiously put it to him that, unlike him and Crick, some
people see no conflict between science and religion, because they
claim science is about how things work and religion is about what
it is all for. Watson retorted: 'Well I don't think we're for anything.

We're just products of evolution. You can say, "Gee, your life must
be pretty bleak if you don't think there's a purpose." But I'm antic-
ipating having a good lunch.' We did have a good lunch, too.

The efforts of apologists to find genuinely distinguished modern
scientists who are religious have an air of desperation, generating
the unmistakably hollow sound of bottoms of barrels being
scraped. The only website I could find that claimed to list 'Nobel

Prize-winning Scientific Christians' came up with six, out of a total
of several hundred scientific Nobelists. Of these six, it turned out
that four were not Nobel Prize-winners at all; and at least one, to
my certain knowledge, is a non-believer who attends church for
purely social reasons. A more systematic study by Benjamin Beit-

Hallahmi 'found that among Nobel Prize laureates in the sciences,
as well as those in literature, there was a remarkable degree of
irreligiosity, as compared to the populations they came from'.52

A study in the leading journal Nature by Larson and Witham in

1998 showed that of those American scientists considered eminent
enough by their peers to have been elected to the National Academy
of Sciences (equivalent to being a Fellow of the Royal Society in

Britain) only about 7 per cent believe in a personal God.53 This
overwhelming preponderance of atheists is almost the exact
opposite of the profile of the American population at large, of
whom more than 90 per cent are believers in some sort of super-
natural being. The figure for less eminent scientists, not elected to
the National Academy, is intermediate. As with the more
distinguished sample, religious believers are in a minority, but a less
dramatic minority of about 40 per cent. It is completely as I would
expect that American scientists are less religious than the American
public generally, and that the most distinguished scientists are the
least religious of all. What is remarkable is the polar opposition
between the religiosity of the American public at large and the
atheism of the intellectual elite.54

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 101

It is faintly amusing that the leading creationist website,

'Answers in Genesis', cites the Larson and Witham study, not in
evidence that there might be something wrong with religion, but as
a weapon in their internal battle against those rival religious
apologists who claim that evolution is compatible with religion.

Under the headline 'National Academy of Science is Godless to the

Core',55 'Answers in Genesis' is pleased to quote the concluding
paragraph of Larson and Witham's letter to the editor of Nature:

As we compiled our findings, the NAS [National

Academy of Sciences] issued a booklet encouraging the
teaching of evolution in public schools, an ongoing source
of friction between the scientific community and some
conservative Christians in the United States. The booklet
assures readers, 'Whether God exists or not is a question
about which science is neutral.' NAS president Bruce

Alberts said: 'There are many very outstanding members
of this academy who are very religious people, people who
believe in evolution, many of them biologists.' Our survey
suggests otherwise.

Alberts, one feels, embraced 'NOMA' for the reasons I discussed in

'The Neville Chamberlain school of evolutionists' (see Chapter 2).

'Answers in Genesis' has a very different agenda.

The equivalent of the US National Academy of Sciences in

Britain (and the Commonwealth, including Canada, Australia,

New Zealand, India, Pakistan, anglophone Africa, etc.) is the Royal

Society. As this book goes to press, my colleagues R. Elisabeth

Cornwell and Michael Stirrat are writing up their comparable, but
more thorough, research on the religious opinions of the Fellows of
the Royal Society (FRS). The authors' conclusions will be published
in full later, but they have kindly allowed me to quote preliminary
results here. They used a standard technique for scaling opinion,
the Likert-type seven-point scale. All 1,074 Fellows of the Royal

Society who possess an email address (the great majority) were
polled, and about 23 per cent responded (a good figure for this kind
of study). They were offered various propositions, for example: 'I
believe in a personal God, that is one who takes an interest in

1 0 2 T H H G () D D E I. U S I G N
individuals, hears and answers prayers, is concerned with sin and
transgressions, and passes judgement.' For each such proposition,
they were invited to choose a number from 1 (strong disagreement)

to 7 (strong agreement). It is a little hard to compare the results
directly with the Larson and Witham study, because Larson and

Witham offered their academicians only a three-point scale, not a
seven-point scale, but the overall trend is the same. The over-
whelming majority of FRS, like the overwhelming majority of US

Academicians, are atheists. Only 3.3 per cent of the Fellows agreed
strongly with the statement that a personal god exists (i.e. chose 7
on the scale), while 78.8 per cent strongly disagreed (i.e. chose 1 on
the scale). If you define 'believers' as those who chose 6 or 7, and
if you define 'unbelievers' as those who chose 1 or 2, there were a
massive 213 unbelievers and a mere 12 believers. Like Larson and

Witham, and as also noted by Beit-Hallahmi and Argyle, Cornwell
and Stirrat found a small but significant tendency for biological
scientists to be even more atheistic than physical scientists. For the
details, and all the rest of their very interesting conclusions, please
refer to their own paper when it is published.56

Moving on from the elite scientists of the National Academy and
the Royal Society, is there any evidence that, in the population at
large, atheists are likely to be drawn from among the better
educated and more intelligent? Several research studies have been
published on the statistical relationship between religiosity and
educational level, or religiosity and IQ. Michael Shermer, in How

We Believe: The Search for God in an Age of Science, describes a
large survey of randomly chosen Americans that he and his
colleague Frank Sulloway carried out. Among their many interest-
ing results was the discovery that religiosity is indeed negatively
correlated with education (more highly educated people are less
likely to be religious). Religiosity is also negatively correlated with
interest in science and (strongly) with political liberalism. None of
this is surprising, nor is the fact that there is a positive correlation
between religiosity and parents' religiosity. Sociologists studying

British children have found that only about one in twelve break
away from their parents' religious beliefs.

As you might expect, different researchers measure things in
different ways, so it is hard to compare different studies. Meta-

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 1 0 3
analysis is the technique whereby an investigator looks at all the
research papers that have been published on a topic, and counts up
the number of papers that have concluded one thing, versus the
number that have concluded something else. On the subject of
religion and IQ, the only meta-analysis known to me was published
by Paul Bell in Mensa Magazine in 2002 (Mensa is the society of
individuals with a high IQ, and their journal not surprisingly
includes articles on the one thing that draws them together).57 Bell
concluded: 'Of 43 studies carried out since 1927 on the relationship
between religious belief and one's intelligence and/or educational
level, all but four found an inverse connection. That is, the higher
one's intelligence or education level, the less one is likely to be
religious or hold "beliefs" of any kind.'

A meta-analysis is almost bound to be less specific than any one
of the studies that contributed to it. It would be nice to have more
studies along these lines, as well as more studies of the members of
elite bodies such as other national academies, and winners of major
prizes and medals such as the Nobel, the Crafoord, the Field, the

Kyoto, the Cosmos and others. I hope that future editions of this
book will include such data. A reasonable conclusion from existing
studies is that religious apologists might be wise to keep quieter
than they habitually do on the subject of admired role models, at
least where scientists are concerned.

PASCAL'S WAGER

The great French mathematician Blaise Pascal reckoned that, how-
ever long the odds against God's existence might be, there is an even
larger asymmetry in the penalty for guessing wrong. You'd better
believe in God, because if you are right you stand to gain eternal
bliss and if you are wrong it won't make any difference anyway. On
the other hand, if you don't believe in God and you turn out to be
wrong you get eternal damnation, whereas if you are right it makes
no difference. On the face of it the decision is a no-brainer. Believe
in God.

There is something distinctly odd about the argument, however.

104 T H E G O D D E I U S 1 O N

Believing is not something you can decide to do as a matter of
policy. At least, it is not something I can decide to do as an act
of will. I can decide to go to church and I can decide to recite the

Nicene Creed, and I can decide to swear on a stack of bibles that I
believe every word inside them. But none of that can make me
actually believe it if I don't. Pascal's wager could only ever be
an argument for feigning belief in God. And the God that you claim
to believe in had better not be of the omniscient kind or he'd
see through the deception. The ludicrous idea that believing is
something you can decide to do is deliciously mocked by Douglas

Adams in Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, where we
meet the robotic Electric Monk, a labour-saving device that you
buy 'to do your believing for you'. The de luxe model is advertised
as 'Capable of believing things they wouldn't believe in Salt

Lake City'.

But why, in any case, do we so readily accept the idea that the
one thing you must do if you want to please God is believe in him?

What's so special about believing? Isn't it just as likely that God
would reward kindness, or generosity, or humility? Or sincerity?

What if God is a scientist who regards honest seeking after truth as
the supreme virtue? Indeed, wouldn't the designer of the universe
have to be a scientist? Bertrand Russell was asked what he would
say if he died and found himself confronted by God, demanding to
know why Russell had not believed in him. 'Not enough evidence,

God, not enough evidence,' was Russell's (I almost said immortal)

reply. Mightn't God respect Russell for his courageous scepticism

(let alone for the courageous pacifism that landed him in prison in
the First World War) far more than he would respect Pascal for his
cowardly bet-hedging? And, while we cannot know which way

God would jump, we don't need to know in order to refute Pascal's

Wager. We are talking about a bet, remember, and Pascal wasn't
claiming that his wager enjoyed anything but very long odds.

Would you bet on God's valuing dishonestly faked belief (or even
honest belief) over honest scepticism?

Then again, suppose the god who confronts you when you die
turns out to be Baal, and suppose Baal is just as jealous as his old
rival Yahweh was said to be. Mightn't Pascal have been better off
wagering on no god at all rather than on the wrong god? Indeed,

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X 1 S T E N C E 1 0 5
doesn't the sheer number of potential gods and goddesses on whom
one might bet vitiate Pascal's whole logic? Pascal was probably
joking when he promoted his wager, just as I am joking in my dis-
missal of it. But I have encountered people, for example in the
question session after a lecture, who have seriously advanced

Pascal's Wager as an argument in favour of believing in God, so it
was right to give it a brief airing here.

Is it possible, finally, to argue for a sort of anti-Pascal wager?

Suppose we grant that there is indeed some small chance that God
exists. Nevertheless, it could be said that you will lead a better,
fuller life if you bet on his not existing, than if you bet on his exist-
ing and therefore squander your precious time on worshipping him,
sacrificing to him, fighting and dying for him, etc. I won't pursue
the question here, but readers might like to bear it in mind when we
come to later chapters on the evil consequences that can flow from
religious belief and observance.

BAYESIAN ARGUMENTS

I think the oddest case I have seen attempted for the existence of

God is the Bayesian argument recently put forward by Stephen

Unwin in The Probability of God. I hesitated before including this
argument, which is both weaker and less hallowed by antiquity
than others. Unwin's book, however, received considerable journal-
istic attention when it was published in 2003, and it does give the
opportunity to bring some explanatory threads together. I have
some sympathy with his aims because, as argued in Chapter 2, I
believe the existence of God as a scientific hypothesis is, at least in
principle, investigable. Also, Unwin's quixotic attempt to put a
number on the probability is quite agreeably funny.

The book's subtitle, A Simple Calculation that Proves the

Ultimate Truth, has all the hallmarks of a late addition by the
publisher, because such overweening confidence is not to be found
in Unwin's text. The book is better seen as a 'How To' manual, a
sort of Bayes' Theorem for Dummies, using the existence of God as
a semi-facetious case study. Unwin could equally well have used a

106 T H E G O D D E I, U S I O N
hypothetical murder as his test case to demonstrate Bayes'

Theorem. The detective marshals the evidence. The fingerprints on
the revolver point to Mrs Peacock. Quantify that suspicion by
slapping a numerical likelihood on her. However, Professor Plum
had a motive to frame her. Reduce the suspicion of Mrs Peacock by
a corresponding numerical value. The forensic evidence suggests a

70 per cent likelihood that the revolver was fired accurately from
a long distance, which argues for a culprit with military training.

Quantify our raised suspicion of Colonel Mustard. The Reverend

Green has the most plausible motive for murder.* Increase our
numerical assessment of his likelihood. But the long blond hair on
the victim's jacket could only belong to Miss Scarlet. . . and so on.

A mix of more or less subjectively judged likelihoods churns around
in the detective's mind, pulling him in different directions. Bayes'

Theorem is supposed to help him to a conclusion. It is a mathe-
matical engine for combining many estimated likelihoods and
coming up with a final verdict, which bears its own quantitative
estimate of likelihood. But of course that final estimate can only be
as good as the original numbers fed in. These are usually
subjectively judged, with all the doubts that inevitably flow from
that. The GIGO principle (Garbage In, Garbage Out) is applicable
here - and, in the case of Unwin's God example, applicable is too
mild a word.

Unwin is a risk management consultant who carries a torch for

Bayesian inference, as against rival statistical methods. He
illustrates Bayes' Theorem by taking on, not a murder, but the
biggest test case of all, the existence of God. The plan is to start
with complete uncertainty, which he chooses to quantify by assign-
ing the existence and non-existence of God a 50 per cent starting
likelihood each. Then he lists six facts that might bear on the
matter, puts a numerical weighting on each, feeds the six numbers
into the engine of Bayes' Theorem and sees what number pops out.

The trouble is that (to repeat) the six weightings are not measured
quantities but simply Stephen Unwin's own personal judgements,
turned into numbers for the sake of the exercise. The six facts are:

* The Reverend Green is the character's name in the versions of Cluedo sold in

Britain (where the game originated), Australia, New Zealand, India and all other

English-speaking areas except North America, where he suddenly becomes Mr

Green. What is that all about?

A R Ci U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X 1 S T E N C E 107

1 We have a sense of goodness.

2 People do evil things (Hitler, Stalin, Saddam Hussein).

3 Nature does evil things (earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes).

4 There might be minor miracles (I lost my keys and found them
again).

5 There might be major miracles (Jesus might have risen from
the dead).

6 People have religious experiences.

For what it is worth (nothing, in my opinion), at the end of a
ding-dong Bayesian race in which God surges ahead in the betting,
then drops way back, then claws his way up to the 50 per cent mark
from which he started, he finally ends up enjoying, in Unwin's
estimation, a 67 per cent likelihood of existing. Unwin then decides
that his Bayesian verdict of 67 per cent isn't high enough, so he
takes the bizarre step of boosting it to 95 per cent by an emergency
injection of 'faith'. It sounds like a joke, but that really is how he
proceeds. I wish I could say how he justifies it, but there really is
nothing to say. I have met this kind of absurdity elsewhere, when I
have challenged religious but otherwise intelligent scientists to
justify their belief, given their admission that there is no evidence:

'I admit that there's no evidence. There's a reason why it's called
faith' (this last sentence uttered with almost truculent conviction,
and no hint of apology or defensiveness).

Surprisingly, Unwin's list of six statements does not include the
argument from design, nor any of Aquinas' five 'proofs', nor any of
the various ontological arguments. He has no truck with them: they
don't contribute even a minor fillip to his numerical estimate of

God's likelihood. He discusses them and, as a good statistician, dis-
misses them as empty. I think this is to his credit, although his
reason for discounting the design argument is different from mine.

But the arguments that he does admit through his Bayesian door
are, it seems to me, just as weak. That is only to say that the sub-
jective likelihood weightings I would give to them are different
from his, and who cares about subjective judgements anyway? He
thinks the fact that we have a sense of right and wrong counts

108 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
strongly in God's favour, whereas I don't see that it should really
shift him, in either direction, from his initial prior expectation.

Chapters 6 and 7 will show that there is no good case to be made
for our possession of a sense of right and wrong having any clear
connection with the existence of a supernatural deity. As in the case
of our ability to appreciate a Beethoven quartet, our sense of good-
ness (though not necessarily our inducement to follow it) would be
the way it is with a God and without a God.

On the other hand, Unwin thinks the existence of evil, especially
natural catastrophes such as earthquakes and tsunamis, counts
strongly against the likelihood that God exists. Here, Unwin's
judgement is opposite to mine but goes along with many un-
comfortable theologians. 'Theodicy' (the vindication of divine
providence in the face of the existence of evil) keeps theologians
awake at night. The authoritative Oxford Companion to

Philosophy gives the problem of evil as 'the most powerful
objection to traditional theism'. But it is an argument only against
the existence of a good God. Goodness is no part of the definition
of the God Hypothesis, merely a desirable add-on.

Admittedly, people of a theological bent are often chronically
incapable of distinguishing what is true from what they'd like to be
true. But, for a more sophisticated believer in some kind of super-
natural intelligence, it is childishly easy to overcome the problem of
evil. Simply postulate a nasty god - such as the one who stalks
every page of the Old Testament. Or, if you don't like that, invent
a separate evil god, call him Satan, and blame his cosmic battle
against the good god for the evil in the world. Or - a more
sophisticated solution - postulate a god with grander things to do
than fuss about human distress. Or a god who is not indifferent to
suffering but regards it as the price that has to be paid for free will
in an orderly, lawful cosmos. Theologians can be found buying into
all these rationalizations.

For these reasons, if I were redoing Unwin's Bayesian exercise,
neither the problem of evil nor moral considerations in general
would shift me far, one way or the other, from the null hypothesis

(Unwin's 50 per cent). But I don't want to argue the point because,
in any case, I can't get excited about personal opinions, whether

Unwin's or mine.

A R G U M E N T S F O R G O D ' S E X I S T E N C E 109

There is a much more powerful argument, which does not
depend upon subjective judgement, and it is the argument from
improbability. It really does transport us dramatically away from

50 per cent agnosticism, far towards the extreme of theism in the
view of many theists, far towards the extreme of atheism in my
view. I have alluded to it several times already. The whole argument
turns on the familiar question 'Who made God?', which most
thinking people discover for themselves. A designer God cannot be
used to explain organized complexity because any God capable of
designing anything would have to be complex enough to demand
the same kind of explanation in his own right. God presents an
infinite regress from which he cannot help us to escape. This argu-
ment, as I shall show in the next chapter, demonstrates that God,
though not technically disprovable, is very very improbable indeed.

CHAPTER 4

Why there almost
certainly is no God

The priests of the different religious sects . . . dread the
advance of science as witches do the approach of
daylight, and scowl on the fatal harbinger announcing
the subdivision of the duperies on which they live.

THOMAS JEFFERSON

W H Y T II E R E A L M O S T C E R T A I N L Y I S N O G O D 113

THE ULTIMATE BOEING 747

The argument from improbability is the big one. In the traditional
guise of the argument from design, it is easily today's most popular
argument offered in favour of the existence of God and it is seen,
by an amazingly large number of theists, as completely and utterly
convincing. It is indeed a very strong and, I suspect, unanswerable
argument - but in precisely the opposite direction from the theist's
intention. The argument from improbability, properly deployed,
comes close to proving that God does not exist. My name for the
statistical demonstration that God almost certainly does not exist is
the Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit.

The name comes from Fred Hoyle's amusing image of the Boeing

747 and the scrapyard. I am not sure whether Hoyle ever wrote it
down himself, but it was attributed to him by his close colleague

Chandra Wickramasinghe and is presumably authentic.58 Hoyle
said that the probability of life originating on Earth is no greater
than the chance that a hurricane, sweeping through a scrapyard,
would have the luck to assemble a Boeing 747. Others have
borrowed the metaphor to refer to the later evolution of complex
living bodies, where it has a spurious plausibility. The odds against
assembling a fully functioning horse, beetle or ostrich by randomly
shuffling its parts are up there in 747 territory. This, in a nutshell,
is the creationist's favourite argument - an argument that could be
made only by somebody who doesn't understand the first thing
about natural selection: somebody who thinks natural selection is a
theory of chance whereas - in the relevant sense of chance - it is the
opposite.

The creationist misappropriation of the argument from im-
probability always takes the same general form, and it doesn't make
any difference if the creationist chooses to masquerade in the
politically expedient fancy dress of 'intelligent design' (ID).* Some
observed phenomenon - often a living creature or one of its more
complex organs, but it could be anything from a molecule up to the
universe itself - is correctly extolled as statistically improbable.

Sometimes the language of information theory is used: the

Darwinian is challenged to explain the source of all the information

Intelligent design has been unkindly described as creationism in a cheap tuxedo.

114 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
in living matter, in the technical sense of information content as a
measure of improbability or 'surprise value'. Or the argument may
invoke the economist's hackneyed motto: there's no such thing as a
free lunch - and Darwinism is accused of trying to get something
for nothing. In fact, as I shall show in this chapter, Darwinian
natural selection is the only known solution to the otherwise un-
answerable riddle of where the information comes from. It turns
out to be the God Hypothesis that tries to get something for
nothing. God tries to have his free lunch and be it too. However
statistically improbable the entity you seek to explain by invoking
a designer, the designer himself has got to be at least as improbable.

God is the Ultimate Boeing 747.

The argument from improbability states that complex things
could not have come about by chance. But many people define

'come about by chance' as a synonym for 'come about in the
absence of deliberate design'. Not surprisingly, therefore, they think
improbability is evidence of design. Darwinian natural selection
shows how wrong this is with respect to biological improbability.

And although Darwinism may not be directly relevant to the
inanimate world - cosmology, for example - it raises our
consciousness in areas outside its original territory of biology.

A deep understanding of Darwinism teaches us to be wary of the
easy assumption that design is the only alternative to chance, and
teaches us to seek out graded ramps of slowly increasing
complexity. Before Darwin, philosophers such as Hume understood
that the improbability of life did not mean it had to be designed,
but they couldn't imagine the alternative. After Darwin, we all
should feel, deep in our bones, suspicious of the very idea of design.

The illusion of design is a trap that has caught us before, and

Darwin should have immunized us by raising our consciousness.

Would that he had succeeded with all of us.

NATURAL SELECTION AS A

CONSCIOUSNESS-RAISER

In a science-fiction starship, the astronauts were homesick: 'Just to

W H Y T H E R E A I . M O S T C E R T A I N L Y I S N O G O D 1 1 5
think that it's springtime back on Earth!' You may not immediately
see what's wrong with this, so deeply ingrained is the unconscious
northern hemisphere chauvinism in those of us who live there, and
even some who don't. 'Unconscious' is exactly right. That is where
consciousness-raising comes in. It is for a deeper reason than
gimmicky fun that, in Australia and New Zealand, you can buy
maps of the world with the South Pole on top. What splendid
consciousness-raisers those maps would be, pinned to the walls of
our northern hemisphere classrooms. Day after day, the children
would be reminded that 'north' is an arbitrary polarity which has
no monopoly on 'up'. The map would intrigue them as well as raise
their consciousness. They'd go home and tell their parents - and, by
the way, giving children something with which to surprise their
parents is one of the greatest gifts a teacher can bestow.

It was the feminists who raised my consciousness of the power
of consciousness-raising. 'Herstory' is obviously ridiculous, if only
because the 'his' in 'history' has no etymological connection with
the masculine pronoun. It is as etymologically silly as the sacking,
in 1999, of a Washington official whose use of 'niggardly' was held
to give racial offence. But even daft examples like 'niggardly' or

'herstory' succeed in raising consciousness. Once we have
smoothed our philological hackles and stopped laughing, herstory
shows us history from a different point of view. Gendered pronouns
notoriously are the front line of such consciousness-raising. He or
she must ask himself or herself whether his or her sense of style
could ever allow himself or herself to write like this. But if we can
just get over the clunking infelicity of the language, it raises our
consciousness to the sensitivities of half the human race. Man,
mankind, the Rights of Man, all men are created equal, one man
one vote - English too often seems to exclude woman. * When I was
young, it never occurred to me that women might feel slighted by a
phrase like 'the future of man'. During the intervening decades, we
have all had our consciousness raised. Even those who still use

'man' instead of 'human' do so with an air of self-conscious
apology - or truculence, taking a stand for traditional language,
even deliberately to rile feminists. All participants in the Zeitgeist

* Classical Latin and Greek were better equipped. Latin homo (Greek anthropo-) means human, as opposed to vir (andro-) which means man, and fetnina (gyne-)

which means woman. Thus anthropology pertains to all humanity, where androl-
ogy and gynecology are sexually exclusive branches of medicine.

116 T H E C O D D E L U S I O N
have had their consciousness raised, even those who choose to
respond negatively by digging in their heels and redoubling the
offence.

Feminism shows us the power of consciousness-raising, and I
want to borrow the technique for natural selection. Natural
selection not only explains the whole of life; it also raises our
consciousness to the power of science to explain how organized
complexity can emerge from simple beginnings without any
deliberate guidance. A full understanding of natural selection
encourages us to move boldly into other fields. It arouses our
suspicion, in those other fields, of the kind of false alternatives that
once, in pre-Darwinian days, beguiled biology. Who, before

Darwin, could have guessed that something so apparently designed
as a dragonfly's wing or an eagle's eye was really the end product
of a long sequence of non-random but purely natural causes?

Douglas Adams's moving and funny account of his own con-
version to radical atheism - he insisted on the 'radical' in case
anybody should mistake him for an agnostic - is testimony to the
power of Darwinism as a consciousness-raiser. I hope I shall be for-
given the self-indulgence that will become apparent in the following
quotation. My excuse is that Douglas's conversion by my earlier
books - which did not set out to convert anyone - inspired me to
dedicate to his memory this book - which does! In an interview,
reprinted posthumously in The Salmon of Doubt, he was asked
by a journalist how he became an atheist. He began his reply by
explaining how he became an agnostic, and then proceeded:

And I thought and thought and thought. But I just didn't
have enough to go on, so I didn't really come to any
resolution. I was extremely doubtful about the idea of
god, but I just didn't know enough about anything to have
a good working model of any other explanation for, well,
life, the universe, and everything to put in its place. But I
kept at it, and I kept reading and I kept thinking.

Sometime around my early thirties I stumbled upon
evolutionary biology, particularly in the form of Richard

Dawkins's books The Selfish Gene and then The Blind

Watchmaker, and suddenly (on, I think the second

W H Y T H E R E A L . M O S T C E R T A I N L . Y IS NO G O D 1 1 7
reading of The Selfish Gene) it all fell into place. It was a
concept of such stunning simplicity, but it gave rise,
naturally, to all of the infinite and baffling complexity of
life. The awe it inspired in me made the awe that people
talk about in respect of religious experience seem, frankly,
silly beside it. I'd take the awe of understanding over the
awe of ignorance any day.59

The concept of stunning simplicity that he was talking about was,
of course, nothing to do with me. It was Darwin's theory of
evolution by natural selection - the ultimate scientific consciousness-
raiser. Douglas, I miss you. You are my cleverest, funniest, most
open-minded, wittiest, tallest, and possibly only convert. I hope this
book might have made you laugh - though not as much as you
made me.

That scientifically savvy philosopher Daniel Dennett pointed
out that evolution counters one of the oldest ideas we have: 'the
idea that it takes a big fancy smart thing to make a lesser thing. I
call that the trickle-down theory of creation. You'll never see a
spear making a spear maker. You'll never see a horse shoe making
a blacksmith. You'll never see a pot making a potter.'60 Darwin's
discovery of a workable process that does that very counter-
intuitive thing is what makes his contribution to human thought so
revolutionary, and so loaded with the power to raise consciousness.

It is surprising how necessary such consciousness-raising is, even
in the minds of excellent scientists in fields other than biology. Fred

Hoyle was a brilliant physicist and cosmologist, but his Boeing 747
misunderstanding, and other mistakes in biology such as his
attempt to dismiss the fossil Archaeopteryx as a hoax, suggest that
he needed to have his consciousness raised by some good exposure
to the world of natural selection. At an intellectual level, I suppose
he understood natural selection. But perhaps you need to be steeped
in natural selection, immersed in it, swim about in it, before you
can truly appreciate its power.

Other sciences raise our consciousness in different ways. Fred

Hoyle's own science of astronomy puts us in our place, meta-
phorically as well as literally, scaling down our vanity to fit the tiny
stage on which we play out our lives - our speck of debris from the

1 1 8 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
cosmic explosion. Geology reminds us of our brief existence both
as individuals and as a species. It raised John Ruskin's conscious-
ness and provoked his memorable heart cry of 1851: 'If only the

Geologists would let me alone, I could do very well, but those
dreadful hammers! I hear the clink of them at the end of every
cadence of the Bible verses.' Evolution does the same thing for our
sense of time - not surprisingly, since it works on the geological
timescale. But Darwinian evolution, specifically natural selection,
does something more. It shatters the illusion of design within the
domain of biology, and teaches us to be suspicious of any kind of
design hypothesis in physics and cosmology as well. I think the
physicist Leonard Susskind had this in mind when he wrote, 'I'm
not an historian but I'll venture an opinion: Modern cosmology
really began with Darwin and Wallace. Unlike anyone before them,
they provided explanations of our existence that completely
rejected supernatural agents . . . Darwin and Wallace set a standard
not only for the life sciences but for cosmology as well.'61 Other
physical scientists who are far above needing any such
consciousness-raising are Victor Stenger, whose book Has Science

Found God? (the answer is no) I strongly recommend, and Peter

Atkins, whose Creation Revisited is my favourite work of scientific
prose poetry.

I am continually astonished by those theists who, far from
having their consciousness raised in the way that I propose, seem to
rejoice in natural selection as 'God's way of achieving his creation'.

They note that evolution by natural selection would be a very easy
and neat way to achieve a world full of life. God wouldn't need to
do anything at all! Peter Atkins, in the book just mentioned, takes
this line of thought to a sensibly godless conclusion when he
postulates a hypothetically lazy God who tries to get away with as
little as possible in order to make a universe containing life. Atkins's
lazy God is even lazier than the deist God of the eighteenth-century

Enlightenment: deus otiosus - literally God at leisure, unoccupied,
unemployed, superfluous, useless. Step by step, Atkins succeeds in
reducing the amount of work the lazy God has to do until he finally
ends up doing nothing at all: he might as well not bother to exist.

My memory vividly hears Woody Allen's perceptive whine: 'If it
turns out that there is a God, I don't think that he's evil. But the

W H Y T H f ' R i . A L M O S T C 1 ; I < I " A 1 N 1 V I S N O C O D 1 1 9
worst that you can say about him is that basically he's an under-
achiever.'

IRREDUCIBLE COMPLEXITY

It is impossible to exaggerate the magnitude of the problem that

Darwin and Wallace solved. I could mention the anatomy, cellular
structure, biochemistry and behaviour of literally any living
organism by example. But the most striking feats of apparent
design are those picked out - for obvious reasons - by creationist
authors, and it is with gentle irony that I derive mine from a
creationist book. Life - How Did It Get Here?, with no named
author but published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society in
sixteen languages and eleven million copies, is obviously a firm
favourite because no fewer than six of those eleven million copies
have been sent to me as unsolicited gifts by well-wishers from
around the world.

Picking a page at random from this anonymous and lavishly dis-
tributed work, we find the sponge known as Venus' Flower Basket

(Euplectella), accompanied by a quotation from Sir David

Attenborough, no less: 'When you look at a complex sponge
skeleton such as that made of silica spicules which is known as

Venus' Flower Basket, the imagination is baffled. How could quasi-
independent microscopic cells collaborate to secrete a million glassy
splinters and construct such an intricate and beautiful lattice? We
do not know.' The Watchtower authors lose no time in adding their
own punchline: 'But one thing we do know: Chance is not the likely
designer.' No indeed, chance is not the likely designer. That is one
thing on which we can all agree. The statistical improbability of
phenomena such as Euplectella's skeleton is the central problem
that any theory of life must solve. The greater the statistical
improbability, the less plausible is chance as a solution: that is
what improbable means. But the candidate solutions to the riddle
of improbability are not, as is falsely implied, design and chance.

They are design and natural selection. Chance is not a solution,
given the high levels of improbability we see in living organisms,

120 T H K G O D I) E I, V S I O N
and no sane biologist ever suggested that it was. Design is not a real
solution either, as we shall see later; but for the moment I want to
continue demonstrating the problem that any theory of life must
solve: the problem of how to escape from chance.

Turning Watchtower's page, we find the wonderful plant known
as Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia trilobata), all of whose parts seem
elegantly designed to trap insects, cover them with pollen and send
them on their way to another Dutchman's Pipe. The intricate
elegance of the flower moves Watchtower to ask: 'Did all of this
happen by chance? Or did it happen by intelligent design?' Once
again, no of course it didn't happen by chance. Once again, intelli-
gent design is not the proper alternative to chance. Natural
selection is not only a parsimonious, plausible and elegant solution;
it is the only workable alternative to chance that has ever been
suggested. Intelligent design suffers from exactly the same objection
as chance. It is simply not a plausible solution to the riddle of
statistical improbability. And the higher the improbability, the more
implausible intelligent design becomes. Seen clearly, intelligent
design will turn out to be a redoubling of the problem. Once again,
this is because the designer himself (/herself/itself) immediately
raises the bigger problem of his own origin. Any entity capable of
intelligently designing something as improbable as a Dutchman's

Pipe (or a universe) would have to be even more improbable than a

Dutchman's Pipe. Far from terminating the vicious regress, God
aggravates it with a vengeance.

Turn another Watchtower page for an eloquent account of the
giant redwood (Sequoiadendron giganteum), a tree for which I
have a special affection because I have one in my garden - a mere
baby, scarcely more than a century old, but still the tallest tree in
the neighbourhood. 'A puny man, standing at a sequoia's base, can
only gaze upward in silent awe at its massive grandeur. Does it
make sense to believe that the shaping of this majestic giant and
of the tiny seed that packages it was not by design?' Yet again, if
you think the only alternative to design is chance then, no, it does
not make sense. But again the authors omit all mention of the real
alternative, natural selection, either because they genuinely don't
understand it or because they don't want to.

The process by which plants, whether tiny pimpernels or

W H Y T l i l - I U ; A L M O S T C F R T A I X L Y I S N O G O D 1 2 1
massive wellingtonias, acquire the energy to build themselves is
photosynthesis. Watchtower again: ' "There are about seventy
separate chemical reactions involved in photosynthesis," one
biologist said. "It is truly a miraculous event." Green plants have
been called nature's "factories" - beautiful, quiet, nonpolluting,
producing oxygen, recycling water and feeding the world. Did they
just happen by chance? Is that truly believable?' No, it is not believ-
able; but the repetition of example after example gets us nowhere.

Creationist 'logic' is always the same. Some natural phenomenon is
too statistically improbable, too complex, too beautiful, too awe-
inspiring to have come into existence by chance. Design is the only
alternative to chance that the authors can imagine. Therefore a
designer must have done it. And science's answer to this faulty logic
is also always the same. Design is not the only alternative to chance.

Natural selection is a better alternative. Indeed, design is not a real
alternative at all because it raises an even bigger problem than it
solves: who designed the designer? Chance and design both fail as
solutions to the problem of statistical improbability, because one of
them is the problem, and the other one regresses to it. Natural
selection is a real solution. It is the only workable solution that has
ever been suggested. And it is not only a workable solution, it is a
solution of stunning elegance and power.

What is it that makes natural selection succeed as a solution to
the problem of improbability, where chance and design both fail at
the starting gate? The answer is that natural selection is a cumula-
tive process, which breaks the problem of improbability up into
small pieces. Each of the small pieces is slightly improbable, but not
prohibitively so. When large numbers of these slightly improbable
events are stacked up in series, the end product of the accumulation
is very very improbable indeed, improbable enough to be far
beyond the reach of chance. It is these end products that form the
subjects of the creationist's wearisomely recycled argument. The
creationist completely misses the point, because he (women should
for once not mind being excluded by the pronoun) insists on treat-
ing the genesis of statistical improbability as a single, one-off event.

He doesn't understand the power of accumulation.

In Climbing Mount Improbable, I expressed the point in a
parable. One side of the mountain is a sheer cliff, impossible to

1 2 2 • •! • ; . . ; • ) > ! » r i s ; s i o
climb, but on the other side is a gentle slope to the summit. On the
summit sits a complex device such as an eye or a bacterial flagellar
motor. The absurd notion that such complexity could
spontaneously self-assemble is symbolized by leaping from the foot
of the cliff to the top in one bound. Evolution, by contrast, goes
around the back of the mountain and creeps up the gentle slope to
the summit: easy! The principle of climbing the gentle slope as
opposed to leaping up the precipice is so simple, one is tempted to
marvel that it took so long for a Darwin to arrive on the scene and
discover it. By the time he did, nearly three centuries had elapsed
since Newton's annus mirabilis, although his achievement seems,
on the face of it, harder than Darwin's.

Another favourite metaphor for extreme improbability is the
combination lock on a bank vault. Theoretically, a bank robber
could get lucky and hit upon the right combination of numbers by
chance. In practice, the bank's combination lock is designed with
enough improbability to make this tantamount to impossible -
almost as unlikely as Fred Hoyle's Boeing 747. But imagine a badly
designed combination lock that gave out little hints progressively-
the equivalent of the 'getting warmer' of children playing Hunt the

Slipper. Suppose that when each one of the dials approaches its
correct setting, the vault door opens another chink, and a dribble
of money trickles out. The burglar would home in on the jackpot
in no time.

Creationists who attempt to deploy the argument from im-
probability in their favour always assume that biological
adaptation is a question of the jackpot or nothing. Another name
for the 'jackpot or nothing' fallacy is 'irreducible complexity' (IC).

Either the eye sees or it doesn't. Either the wing flies or it doesn't.

There are assumed to be no useful intermediates. But this is simply
wrong. Such intermediates abound in practice - which is exactly
what we should expect in theory. The combination lock of life is a

'getting warmer, getting cooler, getting warmer' Hunt the Slipper
device. Real life seeks the gentle slopes at the back of Mount

Improbable, while creationists are blind to all but the daunting
precipice at the front.

Darwin devoted an entire chapter of the Origin of Species to

'Difficulties on the theory of descent with modification', and it is

W H Y r i-i r R r A I M O S T C t R T A I N I Y I S N O < > o D 123
fair to say that this brief chapter anticipated and disposed of every
single one of the alleged difficulties that have since been proposed,
right up to the present day. The most formidable difficulties are

Darwin's 'organs of extreme perfection and complication', some-
times erroneously described as 'irreducibly complex'. Darwin
singled out the eye as posing a particularly challenging problem: 'To
suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjust-
ing the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts
of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic
aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I
freely confess, absurd in the highest degree.' Creationists gleefully
quote this sentence again and again. Needless to say, they never
quote what follows. Darwin's fulsomely free confession turned out
to be a rhetorical device. He was drawing his opponents towards
him so that his punch, when it came, struck the harder. The punch,
of course, was Darwin's effortless explanation of exactly how the
eye evolved by gradual degrees. Darwin may not have used the
phrase 'irreducible complexity', or 'the smooth gradient up Mount

Improbable', but he clearly understood the principle of both.

'What is the use of half an eye?' and 'What is the use of half a
wing?' are both instances of the argument from 'irreducible com-
plexity'. A functioning unit is said to be irreducibly complex if the
removal of one of its parts causes the whole to cease functioning.

This has been assumed to be self-evident for both eyes and wings.

But as soon as we give these assumptions a moment's thought, we
immediately see the fallacy. A cataract patient with the lens of her
eye surgically removed can't see clear images without glasses, but
can see enough not to bump into a tree or fall over a cliff. Half a
wing is indeed not as good as a whole wing, but it is certainly better
than no wing at all. Half a wing could save your life by easing your
fall from a tree of a certain height. And 51 per cent of a wing could
save you if you fall from a slightly taller tree. Whatever fraction of
a wing you have, there is a fall from which it will save your life
where a slightly smaller winglet would not. The thought experi-
ment of trees of different height, from which one might fall, is just
one way to see, in theory, that there must be a smooth gradient
of advantage all the way from 1 per cent of a wing to 100 per
cent. The forests are replete with gliding or parachuting animals

124 T H E G O D 1> E I U S I O N
illustrating, in practice, every step of the way up that particular
slope of Mount Improbable.

By analogy with the trees of different height, it is easy to imagine
situations in which half an eye would save the life of an animal
where 49 per cent of an eye would not. Smooth gradients are pro-
vided by variations in lighting conditions, variations in the distance
at which you catch sight of your prey - or your predators. And, as
with wings and flight surfaces, plausible intermediates are not only
easy to imagine: they are abundant all around the animal kingdom.

A flatworm has an eye that, by any sensible measure, is less than
half a human eye. Nautilus (and perhaps its extinct ammonite
cousins who dominated Paleozoic and Mesozoic seas) has an eye
that is intermediate in quality between flatworm and human.

Unlike the flatworm eye, which can detect light and shade but see
no image, the Nautilus 'pinhole camera' eye makes a real image;
but it is a blurred and dim image compared to ours. It would be
spurious precision to put numbers on the improvement, but nobody
could sanely deny that these invertebrate eyes, and many others, are
all better than no eye at all, and all lie on a continuous and shallow
slope up Mount Improbable, with our eyes near a peak - not the
highest peak but a high one. In Climbing Mount Improbable, I
devoted a whole chapter each to the eye and the wing, demonstrat-
ing how easy it was for them to evolve by slow (or even, maybe, not
all that slow) gradual degrees, and I will leave the subject here.

So, we have seen that eyes and wings are certainly not irreducibly
complex; but what is more interesting than these particular
examples is the general lesson we should draw. The fact that so
many people have been dead wrong over these obvious cases should
serve to warn us of other examples that are less obvious, such as the
cellular and biochemical cases now being touted by those
creationists who shelter under the politically expedient euphemism
of 'intelligent design theorists'.

We have a cautionary tale here, and it is telling us this: do not
just declare things to be irreducibly complex; the chances are that
you haven't looked carefully enough at the details, or thought care-
fully enough about them. On the other hand, we on the science side
must not be too dogmatically confident. Maybe there is something
out there in nature that really does preclude, by its genuinely

W H Y ' 1 1 I K R K A L M O S T (.: F R T A 1 N [ . Y 1 5 N O ( , O I ) 1 2 5
irreducible complexity, the smooth gradient of Mount Improbable.

The creationists are right that, if genuinely irreducible complexity
could be properly demonstrated, it would wreck Darwin's theory.

Darwin himself said as much: 'If it could be demonstrated that any
complex organ existed which could not possibly have been formed
by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would
absolutely break down. But I can find no such case.' Darwin could
find no such case, and nor has anybody since Darwin's time, despite
strenuous, indeed desperate, efforts. Many candidates for this holy
grail of creationism have been proposed. None has stood up to
analysis.

In any case, even though genuinely irreducible complexity would
wreck Darwin's theory if it were ever found, who is to say that it
wouldn't wreck the intelligent design theory as well? Indeed, it
already has wrecked the intelligent design theory, for, as I keep say-
ing and will say again, however little we know about God, the one
thing we can be sure of is that he would have to be very very
complex and presumably irreducibly so!

THE WORSHIP OF GAPS

Searching for particular examples of irreducible complexity is a
fundamentally unscientific way to proceed: a special case of arguing
from present ignorance. It appeals to the same faulty logic as 'the

God of the Gaps' strategy condemned by the theologian Dietrich

Bonhoeffer. Creationists eagerly seek a gap in present-day
knowledge or understanding. If an apparent gap is found, it is
assumed that God, by default, must fill it. What worries thoughtful
theologians such as Bonhoeffer is that gaps shrink as science
advances, and God is threatened with eventually having nothing to
do and nowhere to hide. What worries scientists is something else.

It is an essential part of the scientific enterprise to admit ignorance,
even to exult in ignorance as a challenge to future conquests. As my
friend Matt Ridley has written, 'Most scientists are bored by what
they have already discovered. It is ignorance that drives them on.'

Mystics exult in mystery and want it to stay mysterious. Scientists

126 THEI '.> <> I) i> i 1 i S f O N
exult in mystery for a different reason: it gives them something to
do. More generally, as I shall repeat in Chapter 8, one of the truly
bad effects of religion is that it teaches us that it is a virtue to be
satisfied with not understanding.

Admissions of ignorance and temporary mystification are vital
to good science. It is therefore unfortunate, to say the least, that the
main strategy of creation propagandists is the negative one of
seeking out gaps in scientific knowledge and claiming to fill them
with 'intelligent design' by default. The following is hypothetical
but entirely typical. A creationist speaking: 'The elbow joint of the
lesser spotted weasel frog is irreducibly complex. No part of it
would do any good at all until the whole was assembled. Bet you
can't think of a way in which the weasel frog's elbow could have
evolved by slow gradual degrees.' If the scientist fails to give an
immediate and comprehensive answer, the creationist draws a
default conclusion: 'Right then, the alternative theory, "intelligent
design", wins by default.' Notice the biased logic: if theory A fails
in some particular, theory B must be right. Needless to say, the
argument is not applied the other way around. We are encouraged
to leap to the default theory without even looking to see whether it
fails in the very same particular as the theory it is alleged to replace.

Intelligent design - ID - is granted a Get Out Of Jail Free card^ a
charmed immunity to the rigorous demands made of evolution.

But my present point is that the creationist ploy undermines the
scientist's natural - indeed necessary - rejoicing in (temporary)

uncertainty. For purely political reasons, today's scientist might hes-
itate before saying: 'Hm, interesting point. I wonder how the weasel
frog's ancestors did evolve their elbow joint. I'm not a specialist in
weasel frogs, I'll have to go to the University Library and take a
look. Might make an interesting project for a graduate student.'

The moment a scientist said something like that - and long before
the student began the project - the default conclusion would
become a headline in a creationist pamphlet: 'Weasel frog could
only have been designed by God.'

There is, then, an unfortunate hook-up between science's
methodological need to seek out areas of ignorance in order to
target research, and ID's need to seek out areas of ignorance in
order to claim victory by default. It is precisely the fact that ID has

127
no evidence of its own, but thrives like a weed in gaps left by
scientific knowledge, that sits uneasily with science's need to
identify and proclaim the very same gaps as a prelude to research-
ing them. In this respect, science finds itself in alliance with
sophisticated theologians like Bonhoeffer, united against the
common enemies of naive, populist theology and the gap theology
of intelligent design.

The creationists' love affair with 'gaps' in the fossil record
symbolizes their whole gap theology. I once introduced a chapter on
the so-called Cambrian Explosion with the sentence, 'It is as though
the fossils were planted there without any evolutionary history.'

Again, this was a rhetorical overture, intended to whet the reader's
appetite for the full explanation that was to follow. Sad hindsight
tells me now how predictable it was that my patient explanation
would be excised and my overture itself gleefully quoted out of con-
text. Creationists adore 'gaps' in the fossil record, just as they adore
gaps generally.

Many evolutionary transitions are elegantly documented by
more or less continuous series of gradually changing intermediate
fossils. Some are not, and these are the famous 'gaps'. Michael

Shermer has wittily pointed out that if a new fossil discovery neatly
bisects a 'gap', the creationist will declare that there are now twice
as many gaps! But in any case, note yet again the unwarranted use
of a default. If there are no fossils to document a postulated
evolutionary transition, the default assumption is that there was
no evolutionary transition, therefore God must have intervened.

It is utterly illogical to demand complete documentation of every
step of any narrative, whether in evolution or any other science.

You might as well demand, before convicting somebody of murder,
a complete cinematic record of the murderer's every step leading up
to the crime, with no missing frames. Only a tiny fraction of corpses
fossilize, and we are lucky to have as many intermediate fossils as
we do. We could easily have had no fossils at all, and still the
evidence for evolution from other sources, such as molecular
genetics and geographical distribution, would be overwhelmingly
strong. On the other hand, evolution makes the strong prediction
that if a single fossil turned up in the wrong geological stratum, the
theory would be blown out of the water. When challenged by a

128 T H E G O D I) 1" I. V S I O N
zealous Popperian to say how evolution could ever be falsified,

J. B. S. Haldane famously growled: 'Fossil rabbits in the

Precambrian.' No such anachronistic fossils have ever been
authentically found, despite discredited creationist legends of
human skulls in the Coal Measures and human footprints inter-
spersed with dinosaurs'.

Gaps, by default in the mind of the creationist, are filled by God.

The same applies to all apparent precipices on the massif of Mount

Improbable, where the graded slope is not immediately obvious or
is otherwise overlooked. Areas where there is a lack of data, or a
lack of understanding, are automatically assumed to belong, by
default, to God. The speedy resort to a dramatic proclamation of

'irreducible complexity' represents a failure of the imagination.

Some biological organ, if not an eye then a bacterial flagellar motor
or a biochemical pathway, is decreed without further argument to
be irreducibly complex. No attempt is made to demonstrate
irreducible complexity. Notwithstanding the cautionary tales of
eyes, wings and many other things, each new candidate for the
dubious accolade is assumed to be transparently, self-evidently
irreducibly complex, its status asserted by fiat. But think about it.

Since irreducible complexity is being deployed as an argument for
design, it should no more be asserted by fiat than design itself. You
might as well simply assert that the weasel frog (bombardier beetle,
etc.) demonstrates design, without further argument or justifi-
cation. That is no way to do science.

The logic turns out to be no more convincing than this: 'I [insert
own name] am personally unable to think of any way in which

[insert biological phenomenon] could have been built up step by
step. Therefore it is irreducibly complex. That means it is designed.'

Put it like that, and you immediately see that it is vulnerable to
some scientist coming along and finding an intermediate; or at least
imagining a plausible intermediate. Even if no scientists do come up
with an explanation, it is plain bad logic to assume that 'design'

will fare any better. The reasoning that underlies 'intelligent design'

theory is lazy and defeatist - classic 'God of the Gaps' reasoning. I
have previously dubbed it the Argument from Personal Incredulity.

Imagine that you are watching a really great magic trick. The
celebrated conjuring duo Penn and Teller have a routine in which

W H Y r H E RE A 1. M O S T C F . R T A I N L Y I S N O G () I) 129
they simultaneously appear to shoot each other with pistols, and
each appears to catch the bullet in his teeth. Elaborate precautions
are taken to scratch identifying marks on the bullets before they are
put in the guns, the whole procedure is witnessed at close range by
volunteers from the audience who have experience of firearms, and
apparently all possibilities for trickery are eliminated. Teller's
marked bullet ends up in Penn's mouth and Penn's marked bullet
ends up in Teller's. I [Richard Dawkins] am utterly unable to think
of any way in which this could be a trick. The Argument from

Personal Incredulity screams from the depths of my prescientific
brain centres, and almost compels me to say, 'It must be a miracle.

There is no scientific explanation. It's got to be supernatural.' But
the still small voice of scientific education speaks a different
message. Penn and Teller are world-class illusionists. There is a
perfectly good explanation. It is just that I am too naive, or too
unobservant, or too unimaginative, to think of it. That is the proper
response to a conjuring trick. It is also the proper response to a
biological phenomenon that appears to be irreducibly complex.

Those people who leap from personal bafflement at a natural
phenomenon straight to a hasty invocation of the supernatural are
no better than the fools who see a conjuror bending a spoon and
leap to the conclusion that it is 'paranormal'.

In his book Seven Clues to the Origin of Life, the Scottish
chemist A. G. Cairns-Smith makes an additional point, using the
analogy of an arch. A free-standing arch of rough-hewn stones and
no mortar can be a stable structure, but it is irreducibly complex: it
collapses if any one stone is removed. How, then, was it built in the
first place? One way is to pile a solid heap of stones, then carefully
remove stones one by one. More generally, there are many
structures that are irreducible in the sense that they cannot survive
the subtraction of any part, but which were built with the aid of
scaffolding that was subsequently subtracted and is no longer
visible. Once the structure is completed, the scaffolding can be
removed safely and the structure remains standing. In evolution,
too, the organ or structure you are looking at may have had
scaffolding in an ancestor which has since been removed.

'Irreducible complexity' is not a new idea, but the phrase itself
was invented by the creationist Michael Behe in 1996.62 He is

130 1 II H t . O 1) 1) !• 1 U S 1 O N
credited (if credited is the word) with moving creationism into a
new area of biology: biochemistry and cell biology, which he saw as
perhaps a happier hunting ground for gaps than eyes or wings. His
best approach to a good example (still a bad one) was the bacterial
flagellar motor.

The flagellar motor of bacteria is a prodigy of nature. It drives
the only known example, outside human technology, of a freely
rotating axle. Wheels for big animals would, I suspect, be genuine
examples of irreducible complexity, and this is probably why they
don't exist. How would the nerves and blood vessels get across the
bearing?* The flagellum is a thread-like propeller, with which
the bacterium burrows its way through the water. I say 'burrows'

rather than 'swims' because, on the bacterial scale of existence, a
liquid such as water would not feel as a liquid feels to us. It would
feel more like treacle, or jelly, or even sand, and the bacterium
would seem to burrow or screw its way through the water rather
than swim. Unlike the so-called flagellum of larger organisms like
protozoans, the bacterial flagellum doesn't just wave about like a
whip, or row like an oar. It has a true, freely rotating axle which
turns continuously inside a bearing, driven by a remarkable little
molecular motor. At the molecular level, the motor uses essentially
the same principle as muscle, but in free rotation rather than in
intermittent contraction.! It has been happily described as a tiny
outboard motor (although by engineering standards - and

* There is an example in fiction. The children's writer Philip Pullman, in His Dark

Materials, imagines a species of animals, the 'mulefa', that co-exist with trees that produce perfectly round seedpods with a hole in the centre. These pods the mulefa
adopt as wheels. The wheels, not being part of the body, have no nerves or blood
vessels to get twisted around the 'axle' (a strong claw of horn or bone). Pullman
perceptively notes an additional point: the system works only because the planet
is paved with natural basalt ribbons, which serve as 'roads'. Wheels are no good
over rough country.

f Fascinatingly, the muscle principle is deployed in yet a third mode in some insects
such as flies, bees and bugs, in which the flight muscle is intrinsically oscillatory,
like a reciprocating engine. Whereas other insects such as locusts send nervous
instructions for each wing stroke (as a bird does), bees send an instruction to
switch on (or switch off) the oscillatory motor. Bacteria have a mechanism which
is neither a simple contractor (like a bird's flight muscle) nor a reciprocator (like a
bee's flight muscle), but a true rotator: in that respect it is like an electric motor or
a Wankel engine.

I ! T R t A I . M 1 5 S I' ('. I R !' A f \ 1 Y '•• s \ {> i , o I) 1 3 1
unusually for a biological mechanism - it is a spectacularly
inefficient one).

Without a word of justification, explanation or amplification,

Behe simply proclaims the bacterial flagellar motor to be
irreducibly complex. Since he offers no argument in favour of his
assertion, we may begin by suspecting a failure of his imagination.

He further alleges that specialist biological literature has ignored
the problem. The falsehood of this allegation was massively and (to

Behe) embarrassingly documented in the court of Judge John E. Jones
in Pennsylvania in 2005, where Behe was testifying as an expert
witness on behalf of a group of creationists who had tried to impose

'intelligent design' creationism on the science curriculum of a local
public school - a move of 'breathtaking inanity', to quote Judge

Jones (phrase and man surely destined for lasting fame). This wasn't
the only embarrassment Behe suffered at the hearing, as we shall see.

The key to demonstrating irreducible complexity is to show that
none of the parts could have been useful on its own. They all
needed to be in place before any of them could do any good (Behe's
favourite analogy is a mousetrap). In fact, molecular biologists have
no difficulty in finding parts functioning outside the whole, both
for the flagellar motor and for Behe's other alleged examples of
irreducible complexity. The point is well put by Kenneth Miller
of Brown University, for my money the most persuasive nemesis of

'intelligent design', not least because he is a devout Christian. I
frequently recommend Miller's book, Finding Darwin's God, to
religious people who write to me having been bamboozled by Behe.

In the case of the bacterial rotary engine, Miller calls our atten-
tion to a mechanism called the Type Three Secretory System or

TTSS.63 The TTSS is not used for rotatory movement. It is one of
several systems used by parasitic bacteria for pumping toxic sub-
stances through their cell walls to poison their host organism. On
our human scale, we might think of pouring or squirting a liquid
through a hole; but, once again, on the bacterial scale things look
different. Each molecule of secreted substance is a large protein
with a definite, three-dimensional structure on the same scale as the

TTSS's own: more like a solid sculpture than a liquid. Each
molecule is individually propelled through a carefully shaped
mechanism, like an automated slot machine dispensing, say, toys or

132 "i H I'' ( ' O I-1 D V i ! ' S I O N
bottles, rather than a simple hole through which a substance might

'flow'. The goods-dispenser itself is made of a rather small number
of protein molecules, each one comparable in size and complexity
to the molecules being dispensed through it. Interestingly, these
bacterial slot machines are often similar across bacteria that are not
closely related. The genes for making them have probably been

'copied and pasted' from other bacteria: something that bacteria
are remarkably adept at doing, and a fascinating topic in its own
right, but I must press on.

The protein molecules that form the structure of the TTSS are
very similar to components of the flagellar motor. To the
evolutionist it is clear that TTSS components were commandeered
for a new, but not wholly unrelated, function when the flagellar
motor evolved. Given that the TTSS is tugging molecules through
itself, it is not surprising that it uses a rudimentary version of the
principle used by the flagellar motor, which tugs the molecules of
the axle round and round. Evidently, crucial components of the
flagellar motor were already in place and working before
the flagellar motor evolved. Commandeering existing mechanisms
is an obvious way in which an apparently irreducibly complex piece
of apparatus could climb Mount Improbable.

A lot more work needs to be done, of course, and I'm sure it will
be. Such work would never be done if scientists were satisfied with
a lazy default such as 'intelligent design theory' would encourage.

Here is the message that an imaginary 'intelligent design theorist'

might broadcast to scientists: 'If you don't understand how some-
thing works, never mind: just give up and say God did it. You don't
know how the nerve impulse works? Good! You don't understand
how memories are laid down in the brain? Excellent! Is photo-
synthesis a bafflingly complex process? Wonderful! Please don't go
to work on the problem, just give up, and appeal to God. Dear
scientist, don't work on your mysteries. Bring us your mysteries, for
we can use them. Don't squander precious ignorance by research-
ing it away. We need those glorious gaps as a last refuge for God.'

St Augustine said it quite openly: 'There is another form of temp-
tation, even more fraught with danger. This is the disease of
curiosity. It is this which drives us to try and discover the secrets of
nature, those secrets which are beyond our understanding, which

W H Y T H E R E A I . M O S T C H R T A F N I . Y I S N O ( , O I ) 1 3 3
can avail us nothing and which man should not wish to learn'

(quoted in Freeman 2002).

Another of Behe's favourite alleged examples of 'irreducible
complexity' is the immune system. Let Judge Jones himself take up
the story:

In fact, on cross-examination, Professor Behe was
questioned concerning his 1996 claim that science would
never find an evolutionary explanation for the immune
system. He was presented with fifty-eight peer-reviewed
publications, nine books, and several immunology text-
book chapters about the evolution of the immune system;
however, he simply insisted that this was still not sufficient
evidence of evolution, and that it was not 'good enough.'

Behe, under cross-examination by Eric Rothschild, chief counsel for
the plaintiffs, was forced to admit that he hadn't read most of those
fifty-eight peer-reviewed papers. Hardly surprising, for immun-
ology is hard work. Less forgivable is that Behe dismissed such
research as 'unfruitful'. It certainly is unfruitful if your aim is to
make propaganda among gullible laypeople and politicians, rather
than to discover important truths about the real world. After
listening to Behe, Rothschild eloquently summed up what every
honest person in that courtroom must have felt:

Thankfully, there are scientists who do search for answers
to the question of the origin of the immune system . . . It's
our defense against debilitating and fatal diseases. The
scientists who wrote those books and articles toil in
obscurity, without book royalties or speaking engage-
ments. Their efforts help us combat and cure serious
medical conditions. By contrast, Professor Behe and the
entire intelligent design movement are doing nothing to
advance scientific or medical knowledge and are telling
future generations of scientists, don't bother.64

As the American geneticist Jerry Coyne put it in his review of

Behe's book: 'If the history of science shows us anything, it is that

134 "! i n : i, o D i) 1.1 U S I O N
we get nowhere by labelling our ignorance "God".' Or, in the
words of an eloquent blogger, commenting on an article on
intelligent design in the Guardian by Coyne and me,

Why is God considered an explanation for anything? It's not

- it's a failure to explain, a shrug of the shoulders, an 'I
dunno' dressed up in spirituality and ritual. If someone cred-
its something to God, generally what it means is that they
haven't a clue, so they're attributing it to an unreachable,
unknowable sky-fairy. Ask for an explanation of where
that bloke came from, and odds are you'll get a vague,
pseudo-philosophical reply about having always existed, or
being outside nature. Which, of course, explains nothing.65

Darwinism raises our consciousness in other ways. Evolved
organs, elegant and efficient as they often are, also demonstrate
revealing flaws - exactly as you'd expect if they have an
evolutionary history, and exactly as you would not expect if they
were designed. I have discussed examples in other books: the re-
current laryngeal nerve, for one, which betrays its evolutionary
history in a massive and wasteful detour on its way to its destination.

Many of our human ailments, from lower back pain to hernias,
prolapsed uteruses and our susceptibility to sinus infections, result
directly from the fact that we now walk upright with a body that
was shaped over hundreds of millions of years to walk on all fours.

Our consciousness is also raised by the cruelty and wastefulness of
natural selection. Predators seem beautifully 'designed' to catch
prey animals, while the prey animals seem equally beautifully

'designed' to escape them. Whose side is God on?66

THE ANTHROPIC PRINCIPLE:

PLANETARY VERSION

Gap theologians who may have given up on eyes and wings,
flagellar motors and immune systems, often pin their remaining

A I. M O S I C 1 R I'A I N M i s X <) <• O I) 135
hopes on the origin of life. The root of evolution in non-biological
chemistry somehow seems to present a bigger gap than any par-
ticular transition during subsequent evolution. And in one sense it
is a bigger gap. That one sense is quite specific, and it offers no
comfort to the religious apologist. The origin of life only had to
happen once. We therefore can allow it to have been an extremely
improbable event, many orders of magnitude more improbable
than most people realize, as I shall show. Subsequent evolutionary
steps are duplicated, in more or less similar ways, throughout
millions and millions of species independently, and continually and
repeatedly throughout geological time. Therefore, to explain the
evolution of complex life, we cannot resort to the same kind of
statistical reasoning as we are able to apply to the origin of life. The
events that constitute run-of-the-mill evolution, as distinct from its
singular origin (and perhaps a few special cases), cannot have been
very improbable.

This distinction may seem puzzling, and I must explain it further,
using the so-called anthropic principle. The anthropic principle was
named by the British mathematician Brandon Carter in 1974 and
expanded by the physicists John Barrow and Frank Tipler in their
book on the subject.67 The anthropic argument is usually applied to
the cosmos, and I'll come to that. But I'll introduce the idea on a
smaller, planetary scale. We exist here on Earth. Therefore Earth
must be the kind of planet that is capable of generating and
supporting us, however unusual, even unique, that kind of planet
might be. For example, our kind of life cannot survive without
liquid water. Indeed, exobiologists searching for evidence of extra-
terrestrial life are scanning the heavens, in practice, for signs of
water. Around a typical star like our sun, there is a so-called

Goldilocks zone - not too hot and not too cold, but just right - for
planets with liquid water. A thin band of orbits lies between those
that are too far from the star, where water freezes, and too close,
where it boils.

Presumably, too, a life-friendly orbit has to be nearly circular. A
fiercely elliptical orbit, like that of the newly discovered tenth
planet informally known as Xena, would at best allow the planet to
whizz briefly through the Goldilocks zone once every few (Earth)

decades or centuries. Xena itself doesn't get into the Goldilocks

1 3 6 T II E G O O I) E I. U S I G N
zone at all, even at its closest approach to the sun, which it reaches
once every 560 Earth years. The temperature of Halley's Comet
varies between about 47°C at perihelion and minus 270°C at
aphelion. Earth's orbit, like those of all the planets, is technically an
ellipse (it is closest to the sun in January and furthest away in

July*); but a circle is a special case of an ellipse, and Earth's orbit
is so close to circular that it never strays out of the Goldilocks zone.

Earth's situation in the solar system is propitious in other ways that
singled it out for the evolution of life. The massive gravitational
vacuum cleaner of Jupiter is well placed to intercept asteroids that
might otherwise threaten us with lethal collision. Earth's single
relatively large moon serves to stabilize our axis of rotation,68 and
helps to foster life in various other ways. Our sun is unusual in not
being a binary, locked in mutual orbit with a companion star. It is
possible for binary stars to have planets, but their orbits are likely
to be too chaotically variable to encourage the evolution of life.

Two main explanations have been offered for our planet's
peculiar friendliness to life. The design theory says that God made
the world, placed it in the Goldilocks zone, and deliberately set up
all the details for our benefit. The anthropic approach is very
different, and it has a faintly Darwinian feel. The great majority of
planets in the universe are not in the Goldilocks zones of their
respective stars, and not suitable for life. None of that majority
has life. However small the minority of planets with just the right
conditions for life may be, we necessarily have to be on one of that
minority, because here we are thinking about it.

It is a strange fact, incidentally, that religious apologists love the
anthropic principle. For some reason that makes no sense at all,
they think it supports their case. Precisely the opposite is true. The
anthropic principle, like natural selection, is an alternative to
the design hypothesis. It provides a rational, design-free explan-
ation for the fact that we find ourselves in a situation propitious to
our existence. I think the confusion arises in the religious mind
because the anthropic principle is only ever mentioned in the
context of the problem that it solves, namely the fact that we live in
a life-friendly place. What the religious mind then fails to grasp is
that two candidate solutions are offered to the problem. God is one.

The anthropic principle is the other. They are alternatives.

* If you find that surprising, you may be suffering from northern hemisphere
chauvinism, as described on page 115.

W i I Y 1 I I F . R F A 1 V i (.) S T C V . R T A I N L Y I S N O C O D 1 3 7

Liquid water is a necessary condition for life as we know it, but
it is far from sufficient. Life still has to originate in the water, and
the origin of life may have been a highly improbable occurrence.

Darwinian evolution proceeds merrily once life has originated. But
how does life get started? The origin of life was the chemical event,
or series of events, whereby the vital conditions for natural
selection first came about. The major ingredient was heredity, either

DNA or (more probably) something that copies like DNA but less
accurately, perhaps the related molecule RNA. Once the vital
ingredient - some kind of genetic molecule - is in place, true

Darwinian natural selection can follow, and complex life emerges
as the eventual consequence. But the spontaneous arising by chance
of the first hereditary molecule strikes many as improbable. Maybe
it is - very very improbable, and I shall dwell on this, for it is central
to this section of the book.

The origin of life is a flourishing, if speculative, subject for
research. The expertise required for it is chemistry and it is not
mine. I watch from the sidelines with engaged curiosity, and I shall
not be surprised if, within the next few years, chemists report that
they have successfully midwifed a new origin of life in the
laboratory. Nevertheless it hasn't happened yet, and it is still
possible to maintain that the probability of its happening is, and
always was, exceedingly low - although it did happen once!

Just as we did with the Goldilocks orbits, we can make the point
that, however improbable the origin of life might be, we know it
happened on Earth because we are here. Again as with temperature,
there are two hypotheses to explain what happened - the design
hypothesis and the scientific or 'anthropic' hypothesis. The design
approach postulates a God who wrought a deliberate miracle,
struck the prebiotic soup with divine fire and launched DNA, or
something equivalent, on its momentous career.

Again, as with Goldilocks, the anthropic alternative to the
design hypothesis is statistical. Scientists invoke the magic of large
numbers. It has been estimated that there are between 1 billion and

30 billion planets in our galaxy, and about 100 billion galaxies in
the universe. Knocking a few noughts off for reasons of ordinary
prudence, a billion billion is a conservative estimate of the number
of available planets in the universe. Now, suppose the origin of life,

138 M M : «. o n i) !•;
the spontaneous arising of something equivalent to DNA, really
was a quite staggeringly improbable event. Suppose it was so
improbable as to occur on only one in a billion planets. A grant-
giving body would laugh at any chemist who admitted that the
chance of his proposed research succeeding was only one in a
hundred. But here we are talking about odds of one in a billion.

And yet . . . even with such absurdly long odds, life will still have
arisen on a billion planets - of which Earth, of course, is one.69

This conclusion is so surprising, I'll say it again. If the odds of
life originating spontaneously on a planet were a billion to one
against, nevertheless that stupefyingly improbable event would still
happen on a billion planets. The chance of finding any one of those
billion life-bearing planets recalls the proverbial needle in a
haystack. But we don't have to go out of our way to find a needle
because (back to the anthropic principle) any beings capable of
looking must necessarily be sitting on one of those prodigiously
rare needles before they even start the search.

Any probability statement is made in the context of a certain
level of ignorance. If we know nothing about a planet, we may
postulate the odds of life's arising on it as, say, one in a billion. But
if we now import some new assumptions into our estimate, things
change. A particular planet may have some peculiar properties,
perhaps a special profile of element abundances in its rocks, which
shift the odds in favour of life's emerging. Some planets, in other
words, are more 'Earth-like' than others. Earth itself, of course, is
especially Earth-like! This should give encouragement to our chemists
trying to recreate the event in the lab, for it could shorten the odds
against their success. But my earlier calculation demonstrated that even
a chemical model with odds of success as low as one in a billion would
still predict that life would arise on a billion planets in the universe.

And the beauty of the anthropic principle is that it tells us, against
all intuition, that a chemical model need only predict that life will
arise on one planet in a billion billion to give us a good and entirely
satisfying explanation for the presence of life here. I do not for a
moment believe the origin of life was anywhere near so improbable
in practice. I think it is definitely worth spending money on trying
to duplicate the event in the lab and - by the same token, on SETI,
because I think it is likely that there is intelligent life elsewhere.

W H Y r 11 r u r -\ i. \ i o s r c r. R r A I \ i v i s N O { , ; > n 1 3 9

Even accepting the most pessimistic estimate of the probability
that life might spontaneously originate, this statistical argument
completely demolishes any suggestion that we should postulate
design to fill the gap. Of all the apparent gaps in the evolutionary
story, the origin of life gap can seem unbridgeable to brains
calibrated to assess likelihood and risk on an everyday scale: the
scale on which grant-giving bodies assess research proposals
submitted by chemists. Yet even so big a gap as this is easily filled
by statistically informed science, while the very same statistical
science rules out a divine creator on the 'Ultimate 747' grounds we
met earlier.

But now, to return to the interesting point that launched this
section. Suppose somebody tried to explain the general
phenomenon of biological adaptation along the same lines as we
have just applied to the origin of life: appealing to an immense
number of available planets. The observed fact is that every species,
and every organ that has ever been looked at within every species,
is good at what it does. The wings of birds, bees and bats are good
at flying. Eyes are good at seeing. Leaves are good at photo-
synthesizing. We live on a planet where we are surrounded by
perhaps ten million species, each one of which independently dis-
plays a powerful illusion of apparent design. Each species is well
fitted to its particular way of life. Could we get away with the 'huge
numbers of planets' argument to explain all these separate illusions
of design? No, we could not, repeat not. Don't even think about it.

This is important, for it goes to the heart of the most serious mis-
understanding of Darwinism.

It doesn't matter how many planets we have to play with, lucky
chance could never be enough to explain the lush diversity of
living complexity on Earth in the same way as we used it to explain
the existence of life here in the first place. The evolution of life
is a completely different case from the origin of life because,
to repeat, the origin of life was (or could have been) a unique
event which had to happen only once. The adaptive fit of species to
their separate environments, on the other hand, is millionfold, and
ongoing.

It is clear that here on Earth we are dealing with a generalized
process for optimizing biological species, a process that works all

140 T H V. C, O L) I) I- i U S I O N
over the planet, on all continents and islands, and at all times. We
can safely predict that, if we wait another ten million years, a whole
new set of species will be as well adapted to their ways of life as
today's species are to theirs. This is a recurrent, predictable,
multiple phenomenon, not a piece of statistical luck recognized
with hindsight. And, thanks to Darwin, we know how it is brought
about: by natural selection.

The anthropic principle is impotent to explain the multifarious
details of living creatures. We really need Darwin's powerful crane
to account for the diversity of life on Earth, and especially the
persuasive illusion of design. The origin of life, by contrast, lies out-
side the reach of that crane, because natural selection cannot
proceed without it. Here the anthropic principle comes into its
own. We can deal with the unique origin of life by postulating a
very large number of planetary opportunities. Once that initial
stroke of luck has been granted - and the anthropic principle most
decisively grants it to us - natural selection takes over: and natural
selection is emphatically not a matter of luck.

Nevertheless, it may be that the origin of life is not the only
major gap in the evolutionary story that is bridged by sheer luck,
anthropically justified. For example, my colleague Mark Ridley in

Mendel's Demon (gratuitously and confusingly retitled The

Cooperative Gene by his American publishers) has suggested that
the origin of the eucaryotic cell (our kind of cell, with a nucleus and
various other complicated features such as mitochondria, which are
not present in bacteria) was an even more momentous, difficult and
statistically improbable step than the origin of life. The origin of
consciousness might be another major gap whose bridging was
of the same order of improbability. One-off events like this might
be explained by the anthropic principle, along the following lines.

There are billions of planets that have developed life at the level of
bacteria, but only a fraction of these life forms ever made it across
the gap to something like the eucaryotic cell. And of these, a yet
smaller fraction managed to cross the later Rubicon to consciousness.

If both of these are one-off events, we are not dealing with a ubiquitous
and all-pervading process, as we are with ordinary, run-of-the-
mill biological adaptation. The anthropic principle states that,
since we are alive, eucaryotic and conscious, our planet has to be

W 11 Y '1 11 !•; R I. A I VI () S T C F. R T A I N I. Y ! S N O (.1 O I) 141
one of the intensely rare planets that has bridged all three gaps.

Natural selection works because it is a cumulative one-way
street to improvement. It needs some luck to get started, and the

'billions of planets' anthropic principle grants it that luck. Maybe a
few later gaps in the evolutionary story also need major infusions
of luck, with anthropic justification. But whatever else we may say,
design certainly does not work as an explanation for life, because
design is ultimately not cumulative and it therefore raises bigger
questions than it answers - it takes us straight back along the

Ultimate 747 infinite regress.

We live on a planet that is friendly to our kind of life, and we
have seen two reasons why this is so. One is that life has evolved to
flourish in the conditions provided by the planet. This is because of
natural selection. The other reason is the anthropic one. There are
billions of planets in the universe, and, however small the minority
of evolution-friendly planets may be, our planet necessarily has to
be one of them. Now it is time to take the anthropic principle back
to an earlier stage, from biology back to cosmology.

THE ANTHROPIC PRINCIPLE:

COSMOLOGICAL VERSION

We live not only on a friendly planet but also in a friendly universe.

It follows from the fact of our existence that the laws of physics
must be friendly enough to allow life to arise. It is no accident that
when we look at the night sky we see stars, for stars are a necessary
prerequisite for the existence of most of the chemical elements, and
without chemistry there could be no life. Physicists have calculated
that, if the laws and constants of physics had been even slightly
different, the universe would have developed in such a way that life
would have been impossible. Different physicists put it in different
ways, but the conclusion is always much the same. Martin Rees, in

Just Six Numbers, lists six fundamental constants, which are
believed to hold all around the universe. Each of these six numbers
is finely tuned in the sense that, if it were slightly different, the

142 i i 1 1 t , O I) :> 1 [.

universe would be comprehensively different and presumably
unfriendly to life.*

An example of Rees's six numbers is the magnitude of the so-
called 'strong' force, the force that binds the components of an
atomic nucleus: the nuclear force that has to be overcome when one

'splits' the atom. It is measured as E, the proportion of the mass of
a hydrogen nucleus that is converted to energy when hydrogen
fuses to form helium. The value of this number in our universe is

0.00"7, and it looks as though it had to be very close to this value in
order for any chemistry (which is a prerequisite for life) to exist.

Chemistry as we know it consists of the combination and re-
combination of the ninety or so naturally occurring elements of the
periodic table. Hydrogen is the simplest and commonest of the
elements. All the other elements in the universe are made ultimately
from hydrogen by nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is a difficult
process which occurs in the intensely hot conditions of the interiors
of stars (and in hydrogen bombs). Relatively small stars, such as
our sun, can make only light elements such as helium, the second
lightest in the periodic table after hydrogen. It takes larger and
hotter stars to develop the high temperatures needed to forge most
of the heavier elements, in a cascade of nuclear fusion processes
whose details were worked out by Fred Hoyle and two colleagues

(an achievement for which, mysteriously, Hoyle was not given a
share of the Nobel Prize received by the others). These big stars
may explode as supernovas, scattering their materials, including the
elements of the periodic table, in dust clouds. These dust clouds
eventually condense to form new stars and planets, including
our own. This is why Earth is rich in elements over and above the
ubiquitous hydrogen: elements without which chemistry, and life,
would be impossible.

The relevant point here is that the value of the strong force
crucially determines how far up the periodic table the nuclear
fusion cascade goes. If the strong force were too small, say 0.006

* 1 say 'presumably', partly because we don't know how different alien forms of
life might be, and partly because it is possible that we make a mistake if we con-
sider only the consequences of changing one constant at a time. Could there be
other combinations of values of the six numbers which would turn out to be
friendly to life, in ways that we do not discover if we consider them only one at a
time? Nevertheless, I shall proceed, for simplicity, as though we really do have a
big problem to explain in the apparent fine-tuning of the fundamental constants.

!' R I A L M O S T l' I U '[ A I \ I Y is \ O i. O !< 143
instead of 0.007, the universe would contain nothing but hydrogen,
and no interesting chemistry could result. If it were too large, say

0.008, all the hydrogen would have fused to make heavier elements.

A chemistry without hydrogen could not generate life as we know
it. For one thing, there would be no water. The Goldilocks value -

0.007 - is just right for yielding the richness of elements that we
need for an interesting and life-supporting chemistry.

I won't go through the rest of Rees's six numbers. The bottom
line for each of them is the same. The actual number sits in a

Goldilocks band of values outside which life would not have been
possible. How should we respond to this? Yet again, we have the
theist's answer on the one hand, and the anthropic answer on the
other. The theist says that God, when setting up the universe, tuned
the fundamental constants of the universe so that each one lay in its

Goldilocks zone for the production of life. It is as though God had
six knobs that he could twiddle, and he carefully tuned each knob
to its Goldilocks value. As ever, the theist's answer is deeply un-
satisfying, because it leaves the existence of God unexplained. A

God capable of calculating the Goldilocks values for the six
numbers would have to be at least as improbable as the finely tuned
combination of numbers itself, and that's very improbable indeed -
which is indeed the premise of the whole discussion we are having.

It follows that the theist's answer has utterly failed to make any
headway towards solving the problem at hand. I see no alternative
but to dismiss it, while at the same time marvelling at the number
of people who can't see the problem and seem genuinely satisfied
by the 'Divine Knob-Twiddler' argument.

Maybe the psychological reason for this amazing blindness has
something to do with the fact that many people have not had their
consciousness raised, as biologists have, by natural selection and its
power to tame improbability. J. Anderson Thomson, from his
perspective as an evolutionary psychiatrist, points me to an
additional reason, the psychological bias that we all have towards
personifying inanimate objects as agents. As Thomson says, we are
more inclined to mistake a shadow for a burglar than a burglar for
a shadow. A false positive might be a waste of time. A false negative
could be fatal. In a letter to me, he suggested that, in our ancestral
past, our greatest challenge in our environment came from each

1 4 4 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
other. 'The legacy of that is the default assumption, often fear, of
human intention. We have a great deal of difficulty seeing anything
other than human causation.' We naturally generalized that to
divine intention. I shall return to the seductiveness of 'agents' in

Chapter 5.

Biologists, with their raised consciousness of the power of
natural selection to explain the rise of improbable things, are
unlikely to be satisfied with any theory that evades the problem of
improbability altogether. And the theistic response to the riddle
of improbability is an evasion of stupendous proportions. It is more
than a restatement of the problem, it is a grotesque amplification of
it. Let's turn, then, to the anthropic alternative. The anthropic
answer, in its most general form, is that we could only be discussing
the question in the kind of universe that was capable of producing
us. Our existence therefore determines that the fundamental
constants of physics had to be in their respective Goldilocks zones.

Different physicists espouse different kinds of anthropic solutions
to the riddle of our existence.

Hard-nosed physicists say that the six knobs were never free to
vary in the first place. When we finally reach the long-hoped-for

Theory of Everything, we shall see that the six key numbers depend
upon each other, or on something else as yet unknown, in ways that
we today cannot imagine. The six numbers may turn out to be no
freer to vary than is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its
diameter. It will turn out that there is only one way for a universe
to be. Far from God being needed to twiddle six knobs, there are
no knobs to twiddle.

Other physicists (Martin Rees himself would be an example)

find this unsatisfying, and I think I agree with them. It is indeed
perfectly plausible that there is only one way for a universe to be.

But why did that one way have to be such a set-up for our eventual
evolution? Why did it have to be the kind of universe which seems
almost as if, in the words of the theoretical physicist Freeman

Dyson, it 'must have known we were coming'? The philosopher

John Leslie uses the analogy of a man sentenced to death by firing
squad. It is just possible that all ten men of the firing squad will
miss their victim. With hindsight, the survivor who finds himself in
a position to reflect upon his luck can cheerfully say, 'Well,

W H Y T H !• R E A I. M O S "I" C 1- R T A 1 N L Y i S NO C, O I) 1 4 5
obviously they all missed, or I wouldn't be here thinking about it.'

But he could still, forgivably, wonder why they all missed, and toy
with the hypothesis that they were bribed, or drunk.

This objection can be answered by the suggestion, which Martin

Rees himself supports, that there are many universes, co-existing
like bubbles of foam, in a 'multiverse' (or 'megaverse', as Leonard

Susskind prefers to call it).* The laws and constants of any one
universe, such as our observable universe, are by-laws. The multi-
verse as a whole has a plethora of alternative sets of by-laws. The
anthropic principle kicks in to explain that we have to be in one of
those universes (presumably a minority) whose by-laws happened
to be propitious to our eventual evolution and hence contemplation
of the problem.

An intriguing version of the multiverse theory arises out of con-
siderations of the ultimate fate of our universe. Depending upon the
values of numbers such as Martin Rees's six constants, our universe
may be destined to expand indefinitely, or it may stabilize at an
equilibrium, or the expansion may reverse itself and go into con-
traction, culminating in the so-called 'big crunch'. Some big crunch
models have the universe then bouncing back into expansion, and
so on indefinitely with, say, a 20-billion-year cycle time. The
standard model of our universe says that time itself began in the big
bang, along with space, some 13 billion years ago. The serial big
crunch model would amend that statement: our time and space did
indeed begin in our big bang, but this was just the latest in a long
series of big bangs, each one initiated by the big crunch that
terminated the previous universe in the series. Nobody understands
what goes on in singularities such as the big bang, so it is conceiv-
able that the laws and constants are reset to new values, each time.

If bang-expansion-contraction-crunch cycles have been going on
for ever like a cosmic accordion, we have a serial, rather than a
parallel, version of the multiverse. Once again, the anthropic
principle does its explanatory duty. Of all the universes in the series,
only a minority have their 'dials' tuned to biogenic conditions. And,
of course, the present universe has to be one of that minority,
because we are in it. As it turns out, this serial version of the
multiverse must now be judged less likely than it once was, because

* Susskind (2006) gives a splendid advocacy of the anthropic principle in the
megaverse. He says the idea is hated by most physicists. I can't understand why. I
think it is beautiful - perhaps because my consciousness has been raised by

Darwin.

146 r H v (., o )> i' i i. r s !

recent evidence is starting to steer us away from the big crunch
model. It now looks as though our own universe is destined to
expand for ever.

Another theoretical physicist, Lee Smolin, has developed a
tantalizingly Darwinian variant on the multiverse theory, including
both serial and parallel elements. Smolin's idea, expounded in The

Life of the Cosmos, hinges on the theory that daughter universes
are born of parent universes, not in a fully fledged big crunch but
more locally in black holes. Smolin adds a form of heredity: the
fundamental constants of a daughter universe are slightly 'mutated'

versions of the constants of its parent. Heredity is the essential
ingredient of Darwinian natural selection, and the rest of Smolin's
theory follows naturally. Those universes that have what it takes to

'survive' and 'reproduce' come to predominate in the multiverse.

'What it takes' includes lasting long enough to 'reproduce'. Because
the act of reproduction takes place in black holes, successful
universes must have what it takes to make black holes. This ability
entails various other properties. For example, the tendency for
matter to condense into clouds and then stars is a prerequisite to
making black holes. Stars also, as we have seen, are the precursors
to the development of interesting chemistry, and hence life. So,

Smolin suggests, there has been a Darwinian natural selection of
universes in the multiverse, directly favouring the evolution of
black hole fecundity and indirectly favouring the production of life.

Not all physicists are enthusiastic about Smolin's idea, although the

Nobel Prize-winning physicist Murray Gell-Mann is quoted as say-
ing: 'Smolin? Is he that young guy with those crazy ideas? He may
not be wrong.'70 A mischievous biologist might wonder whether
some other physicists are in need of Darwinian consciousness-
raising.

It is tempting to think (and many have succumbed) that to
postulate a plethora of universes is a profligate luxury which should
not be allowed. If we are going to permit the extravagance of a
multiverse, so the argument runs, we might as well be hung for
a sheep as a lamb and allow a God. Aren't they both equally un-
parsimonious ad hoc hypotheses, and equally unsatisfactory?

People who think that have not had their consciousness raised by
natural selection. The key difference between the genuinely

147
extravagant God hypothesis and the apparently extravagant multi-
verse hypothesis is one of statistical improbability. The multiverse,
for all that it is extravagant, is simple. God, or any intelligent,
decision-taking, calculating agent, would have to be highly im-
probable in the very same statistical sense as the entities he is
supposed to explain. The multiverse may seem extravagant in sheer
number of universes. But if each one of those universes is simple in
its fundamental laws, we are still not postulating anything highly
improbable. The very opposite has to be said of any kind of
intelligence.

Some physicists are known to be religious (Russell Stannard and
the Reverend John Polkinghorne are the two British examples 1
have mentioned). Predictably, they seize upon the improbability of
the physical constants all being tuned in their more or less narrow

Goldilocks zones, and suggest that there must be a cosmic intelli-
gence who deliberately did the tuning. I have already dismissed all
such suggestions as raising bigger problems than they solve. But
what attempts have theists made to reply? How do they cope with
the argument that any God capable of designing a universe, care-
fully and foresightfully tuned to lead to our evolution, must be a
supremely complex and improbable entity who needs an even
bigger explanation than the one he is supposed to provide?

The theologian Richard Swinburne, as we have learned to
expect, thinks he has an answer to this problem, and he expounds
it in his book Is There a God?. He begins by showing that his heart
is in the right place by convincingly demonstrating why we should
always prefer the simplest hypothesis that fits the facts. Science
explains complex things in terms of the interactions of simpler
things, ultimately the interactions of fundamental particles. I (and I
dare say you) think it a beautifully simple idea that all things are
made of fundamental particles which, although exceedingly
numerous, are drawn from a small, finite set of types of particle. If
we are sceptical, it is likely to be because we think the idea too
simple. But for Swinburne it is not simple at all, quite the reverse.

Given that the number of particles of any one type, say electrons,
is large, Swinburne thinks it too much of a coincidence that so
many should have the same properties. One electron, he could
stomach. But billions and billions of electrons, all with the same

148 T I I F C O D I i t L U S I O N
properties, that is what really excites his incredulity. For him it
would be simpler, more natural, less demanding of explanation, if
all electrons were different from each other. Worse, no one electron
should naturally retain its properties for more than an instant at a
time; each should change capriciously, haphazardly and fleetingly
from moment to moment. That is Swinburne's view of the simple,
native state of affairs. Anything more uniform (what you or I would
call more simple) requires a special explanation. 'It is only because
electrons and bits of copper and all other material objects have the
same powers in the twentieth century as they did in the nineteenth
century that things are as they are now.'

Enter God. God comes to the rescue by deliberately and con-
tinuously sustaining the properties of all those billions of electrons
and bits of copper, and neutralizing their otherwise ingrained
inclination to wild and erratic fluctuation. That is why when you've
seen one electron you've seen them all; that is why bits of copper all
behave like bits of copper, and that is why each electron and each
bit of copper stays the same as itself from microsecond to micro-
second and from century to century. It is because God constantly
keeps a finger on each and every particle, curbing its reckless
excesses and whipping it into line with its colleagues to keep them
all the same.

But how can Swinburne possibly maintain that this hypothesis
of God simultaneously keeping a gazillion fingers on wayward
electrons is a simple hypothesis? It is, of course, precisely the oppo-
site of simple. Swinburne pulls off the trick to his own satisfaction
by a breathtaking piece of intellectual chutzpah. He asserts, with-
out justification, that God is only a single substance. What brilliant
economy of explanatory causes, compared with all those
gigazillions of independent electrons all just happening to be the
i
same!

Theism claims that every other object which exists is
caused to exist and kept in existence by just one sub-
stance, God. And it claims that every property which
every substance has is due to God causing or permitting it
to exist. It is a hallmark of a simple explanation to
postulate few causes. There could in this respect be no

W H Y T H K R K A L V I O S I C E R T A I N L Y I S N O ( , ( ) ] ) 1 4 9
simpler explanation than one which postulated only one
cause. Theism is simpler than polytheism. And theism
postulates for its one cause, a person [with] infinite power

(God can do anything logically possible), infinite
knowledge (God knows everything logically possible to
know), and infinite freedom.

Swinburne generously concedes that God cannot accomplish
feats that are logically impossible, and one feels grateful for this
forbearance. Having said that, there is no limit to the explanatory
purposes to which God's infinite power is put. Is science having a
little difficulty explaining X? No problem. Don't give X another
glance. God's infinite power is effortlessly wheeled in to explain X

(along with everything else), and it is always a supremely simple
explanation because, after all, there is only one God. What could
be simpler than that?

Well, actually, almost everything. A God capable of con-
tinuously monitoring and controlling the individual status of every
particle in the universe cannot be simple. His existence is going to
need a mammoth explanation in its own right. Worse (from the
point of view of simplicity), other corners of God's giant
consciousness are simultaneously preoccupied with the doings and
emotions and prayers of every single human being - and whatever
intelligent aliens there might be on other planets in this and 100
billion other galaxies. He even, according to Swinburne, has to
decide continuously not to intervene miraculously to save us when
we get cancer. That would never do, for, 'If God answered most
prayers for a relative to recover from cancer, then cancer would no
longer be a problem for humans to solve.' And then what would we
find to do with our time?

Not all theologians go as far as Swinburne. Nevertheless, the
remarkable suggestion that the God Hypothesis is simple can be
found in other modern theological writings. Keith Ward, then

Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford, was very clear on the
matter in his 1996 book God, Chance and Necessity:

As a matter of fact, the theist would claim that God is a
very elegant, economical and fruitful explanation for the

150 '1 H K G O 1) I) F I. U S I O X
existence of the universe. It is economical because it
attributes the existence and nature of absolutely every-
thing in the universe to just one being, an ultimate cause
which assigns a reason for the existence of everything,
including itself. It is elegant because from one key idea -
the idea of the most perfect possible being - the whole
nature of God and the existence of the universe can be
intelligibly explicated.

Like Swinburne, Ward mistakes what it means to explain some-
thing, and he also seems not to understand what it means to say of
something that it is simple. I am not clear whether Ward really
thinks God is simple, or whether the above passage represented a
temporary 'for the sake of argument' exercise. Sir John

Polkinghorne, in Science and Christian Belief, quotes Ward's earlier
criticism of the thought of Thomas Aquinas: 'Its basic error is in
supposing that God is logically simple - simple not just in the sense
that his being is indivisible, but in the much stronger sense that
what is true of any part of God is true of the whole. It is quite
coherent, however, to suppose that God, while indivisible, is inter-
nally complex.' Ward gets it right here. Indeed, the biologist Julian

Huxley, in 1912, defined complexity in terms of 'heterogeneity of
parts', by which he meant a particular kind of functional
indivisibility.71

Elsewhere, Ward gives evidence of the difficulty the theological
mind has in grasping where the complexity of life comes from. He
quotes another theologian-scientist, the biochemist Arthur

Peacocke (the third member of my trio of British religious
scientists), as postulating the existence in living matter of a

'propensity for increased complexity'. Ward characterizes this as

'some inherent weighting of evolutionary change which favours
complexity'. He goes on to suggest that such a bias 'might be some
weighting of the mutational process, to ensure that more complex
mutations occurred'. Ward is sceptical of this, as well he should be.

The evolutionary drive towards complexity comes, in those lineages
where it comes at all, not from any inherent propensity for
increased complexity, and not from biased mutation. It comes from
natural selection: the process which, as far as we know, is the only

W H Y T H H R B A L M O S T C E R T A I N L Y I S N O C O D 1 5 1
process ultimately capable of generating complexity out of
simplicity. The theory of natural selection is genuinely simple. So is
the origin from which it starts. That which it explains, on the other
hand, is complex almost beyond telling: more complex than any-
thing we can imagine, save a God capable of designing it.

AN INTERLUDE AT CAMBRIDGE

At a recent Cambridge conference on science and religion, where

I put forward the argument I am here calling the Ultimate

747 argument, I encountered what, to say the least, was a cordial
failure to achieve a meeting of minds on the question of God's
simplicity. The experience was a revealing one, and I'd like to
share it.

First I should confess (that is probably the right word) that the
conference was sponsored by the Templeton Foundation. The
audience was a small number of hand-picked science journalists
from Britain and America. I was the token atheist among the
eighteen invited speakers. One of the journalists, John Horgan,
reported that they had each been paid the handsome sum of

$15,000 to attend the conference, on top of all expenses. This
surprised me. My long experience of academic conferences included
no instances where the audience (as opposed to the speakers) was
paid to attend. If I had known, my suspicions would immediately
have been aroused. Was Templeton using his money to suborn
science journalists and subvert their scientific integrity? John

Horgan later wondered the same thing and wrote an article about
his whole experience.72 In it he revealed, to my chagrin, that my
advertised involvement as a speaker had helped him and others to
overcome their doubts:

The British biologist Richard Dawkins, whose partici-
pation in the meeting helped convince me and other
fellows of its legitimacy, was the only speaker who
denounced religious beliefs as incompatible with science,
irrational, and harmful. The other speakers - three

1 5 2 T H E G O D I) E I, U S I G N
agnostics, one Jew, a deist, and 12 Christians (a Muslim
philosopher canceled at the last minute) - offered a per-
spective clearly skewed in favor of religion and

Christianity.

Horgan's article is itself endearingly ambivalent. Despite his mis-
givings, there were aspects of the experience that he clearly valued

(and so did I, as will become apparent below). Horgan wrote:

My conversations with the faithful deepened my appreci-
ation of why some intelligent, well-educated people
embrace religion. One reporter discussed the experience
of speaking in tongues, and another described having an
intimate relationship with Jesus. My convictions did not
change, but others' did. At least one fellow said that his
faith was wavering as a result of Dawkins's dissection of
religion. And if the Templeton Foundation can help bring
about even such a tiny step toward my vision of a world
without religion, how bad can it be?

Horgan's article was given a second airing by the literary agent

John Brockman on his 'Edge' website (often described as an on-line
scientific salon) where it elicited varying responses, including one
from the theoretical physicist Freeman Dyson. I responded to

Dyson, quoting from his acceptance speech when he won the

Templeton Prize. Whether he liked it or not, by accepting the

Templeton Prize Dyson had sent a powerful signal to the world. It
would be taken as an endorsement of religion by one of the world's
most distinguished physicists.

'I am content to be one of the multitude of Christians who
do not care much about the doctrine of the Trinity or the
historical truth of the gospels.'

But isn't that exactly what any atheistic scientist would say, if he
wanted to sound Christian? I gave further quotations from Dyson's
acceptance speech, satirically interspersing them with imagined
questions (in italics) to a Templeton official:

W H Y T H E R K A L. M O S T C R R T A I N I. Y I S N O C O I) 153

Oh, you want something a bit more profound, as well?

How about. . .

'I do not make any clear distinction between mind and

God. God is what mind becomes when it has passed
beyond the scale of our comprehension.'

Have I said enough yet, and can I get back to doing
physics now? Oh, not enough yet? OK then, how about
this:

'Even in the gruesome history of the twentieth century, I
see some evidence of progress in religion. The two
individuals who epitomized the evils of our century, Adolf

Hitler and Joseph Stalin, were both avowed atheists.'*

Can I go now?

Dyson could easily refute the implication of these quotations
from his Templeton acceptance speech, if only he would explain
clearly what evidence he finds to believe in God, in something more
than just the Einsteinian sense which, as I explained in Chapter 1,
we can all trivially subscribe to. If I understand Horgan's point, it
is that Templeton's money corrupts science. I am sure Freeman

Dyson is way above being corrupted. But his acceptance speech is
still unfortunate if it seems to set an example to others. The

Templeton Prize is two orders of magnitude larger than the induce-
ments offered to the journalists at Cambridge, having been
explicitly set up to be larger than the Nobel Prize. In Faustian vein,
my friend the philosopher Daniel Dennett once joked to me,

'Richard, if ever you fall on hard times . . .'

For better or worse, I attended two days at the Cambridge con-
ference, giving a talk of my own and taking part in the discussion
of several other talks. I challenged the theologians to answer the
point that a God capable of designing a universe, or anything else,
would have to be complex and statistically improbable. The
strongest response I heard was that I was brutally foisting a
scientific epistemology upon an unwilling theology, f Theologians
had always defined God as simple. Who was I, a scientist, to dictate

* This calumny is dealt with in Chapter 7.

f This accusation is reminiscent of 'NOMA', whose overblown claims I dealt with
in Chapter 2.

154 T H E G O I) D R I, U S I O N
to theologians that their God had to be complex? Scientific
arguments, such as those I was accustomed to deploying in my own
field, were inappropriate since theologians had always maintained
that God lay outside science.

I did not gain the impression that the theologians who mounted
this evasive defence were being wilfully dishonest. I think they were
sincere. Nevertheless, I was irresistibly reminded of Peter

Medawar's comment on Father Teilhard de Chardin's The

Phenomenon of Man, in the course of what is possibly the greatest
negative book review of all time: 'its author can be excused of dis-
honesty only on the grounds that before deceiving others he has
taken great pains to deceive himself'.73 The theologians of my

Cambridge encounter were defining themselves into an
epistemological Safe Zone where rational argument could not reach
them because they had declared by fiat that it could not. Who was

I to say that rational argument was the only admissible kind of
argument? There are other ways of knowing besides the scientific,
and it is one of these other ways of knowing that must be deployed
to know God.

The most important of these other ways of knowing turned out
to be personal, subjective experience of God. Several discussants at

Cambridge claimed that God spoke to them, inside their heads, just
as vividly and as personally as another human might. I have dealt
with illusion and hallucination in Chapter 3 ('The argument from
personal experience'), but at the Cambridge conference I added
two points. First, that if God really did communicate with humans
that fact would emphatically not lie outside science. God comes
bursting through from whatever other-worldly domain is his
natural abode, crashing through into our world where his messages
can be intercepted by human brains - and that phenomenon has
nothing to do with science? Second, a God who is capable of send-
ing intelligible signals to millions of people simultaneously, and of
receiving messages from all of them simultaneously, cannot be,
whatever else he might be, simple. Such bandwidth! God may not
have a brain made of neurones, or a CPU made of silicon, but if he
has the powers attributed to him he must have something far more
elaborately and non-randomly constructed than the largest brain or
the largest computer we know.

W H V T H t R t A I M O S T C E R T A I N I. Y I S N O G 0 1) 1 5 5

Time and again, my theologian friends returned to the point that
there had to be a reason why there is something rather than
nothing. There must have been a first cause of everything, and we
might as well give it the name God. Yes, I said, but it must have
been simple and therefore, whatever else we call it, God is not an
appropriate name (unless we very explicitly divest it of all the
baggage that the word 'God' carries in the minds of most religious
believers). The first cause that we seek must have been the simple
basis for a self-bootstrapping crane which eventually raised the
world as we know it into its present complex existence. To suggest
that the original prime mover was complicated enough to indulge
in intelligent design, to say nothing of mindreading millions of
humans simultaneously, is tantamount to dealing yourself a perfect
hand at bridge. Look around at the world of life, at the Amazon
rainforest with its rich interlacement of lianas, bromeliads, roots
and flying buttresses; its army ants and its jaguars, its tapirs and
peccaries, treefrogs and parrots. What you are looking at is the
statistical equivalent of a perfect hand of cards (think of all the
other ways you could permute the parts, none of which would
work) - except that we know how it came about: by the gradual-
istic crane of natural selection. It is not just scientists who revolt at
mute acceptance of such improbability arising spontaneously; com-
mon sense balks too. To suggest that the first cause, the great
unknown which is responsible for something existing rather than
nothing, is a being capable of designing the universe and of talking
to a million people simultaneously, is a total abdication of the
responsibility to find an explanation. It is a dreadful exhibition of
self-indulgent, thought-denying skyhookery.

I am not advocating some sort of narrowly scientistic way of
thinking. But the very least that any honest quest for truth must
have in setting out to explain such monstrosities of improbability as
a rainforest, a coral reef, or a universe is a crane and not a skyhook.

The crane doesn't have to be natural selection. Admittedly, nobody
has ever thought of a better one. But there could be others yet to be
discovered. Maybe the 'inflation' that physicists postulate as
occupying some fraction of the first yoctosecond of the universe's
existence will turn out, when it is better understood, to be a
cosmological crane to stand alongside Darwin's biological one. Or

156 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
maybe the elusive crane that cosmologists seek will be a version of

Darwin's idea itself: either Smolin's model or something similar. Or
maybe it will be the multiverse plus anthropic principle espoused by

Martin Rees and others. It may even be a superhuman designer -
but, if so, it will most certainly not be a designer who just popped
into existence, or who always existed. If (which I don't believe for
a moment) our universe was designed, and a fortiori if the designer
reads our thoughts and hands out omniscient advice, forgiveness and
redemption, the designer himself must be the end product of some
kind of cumulative escalator or crane, perhaps a version of

Darwinism in another universe.

The last-ditch defence by my critics in Cambridge was attack.

My whole world-view was condemned as 'nineteenth-century'. This
is such a bad argument that I almost omitted to mention it. But
regrettably I encounter it rather frequently. Needless to say, to call
an argument nineteenth-century is not the same as explaining what
is wrong with it. Some nineteenth-century ideas were very good
ideas, not least Darwin's own dangerous idea. In any case, this par-
ticular piece of namecalling seemed a bit rich coming, as it did,
from an individual (a distinguished Cambridge geologist, surely
well advanced along the Faustian road to a future Templeton Prize)

who justified his own Christian belief by invoking what he called
the historicity of the New Testament. It was precisely in the
nineteenth century that theologians, especially in Germany, called
into grave doubt that alleged historicity, using the evidence-based
methods of history to do so. This was, indeed, swiftly pointed out
by the theologians at the Cambridge conference.

In any case, I know the 'nineteenth-century' taunt of old. It goes
with the 'village atheist' gibe. It goes with 'Contrary to what you
seem to think Ha Ha Ha we don't believe in an old man with a long
white beard any more Ha Ha Ha.' All three jokes are code for
something else, just as, when I lived in America in the late 1960s,

'law and order' was politicians' code for anti-black prejudice.*

What, then, is the coded meaning of 'You are so nineteenth-century'

in the context of an argument about religion? It is code for: 'You
are so crude and unsubtle, how could you be so insensitive and ill-
mannered as to ask me a direct, point-blank question like "Do you
believe in miracles?" or "Do you believe Jesus was born of a

* In Britain 'inner cities' had the equivalent coded meaning, prompting Auberon

Waugh's wickedly hilarious reference to 'inner cities of both sexes'.

WHY T H E R E A L M O S T C E R T A I N L Y IS NO GOD 157
virgin?" Don't you know that in polite society we don't ask such
questions? That sort of question went out in the nineteenth
century.' But think about why it is impolite to ask such direct,
factual questions of religious people today. It is because it is em-
barrassing! But it is the answer that is embarrassing, if it is yes.

The nineteenth-century connection is now clear. The nineteenth
century is the last time when it was possible for an educated person to
admit to believing in miracles like the virgin birth without embarrass-
ment. When pressed, many educated Christians today are too loyal
to deny the virgin birth and the resurrection. But it embarrasses
them because their rational minds know it is absurd, so they would
much rather not be asked. Hence, if somebody like me insists on
asking the question, it is I who am accused of being 'nineteenth-
century'. It is really quite funny, when you think about it.

I left the conference stimulated and invigorated, and reinforced
in my conviction that the argument from improbability - the

'Ultimate 747' gambit - is a very serious argument against
the existence of God, and one to which I have yet to hear a theolo-
gian give a convincing answer despite numerous opportunities and
invitations to do so. Dan Dennett rightly describes it as 'an un-
rebuttable refutation, as devastating today as when Philo used it to
trounce Cleanthes in Hume's Dialogues two centuries earlier. A sky-
hook would at best simply postpone the solution to the problem,
but Hume couldn't think of any cranes, so he caved in.'74 Darwin,
of course, supplied the vital crane. How Hume would have loved it.

This chapter has contained the central argument of my book, and
so, at the risk of sounding repetitive, I shall summarize it as a series
of six numbered points.

1 One of the greatest challenges to the human intellect, over the
centuries, has been to explain how the complex, improbable
appearance of design in the universe arises.

2 The natural temptation is to attribute the appearance of design
to actual design itself. In the case of a man-made artefact such
as a watch, the designer really was an intelligent engineer. It is
tempting to apply the same logic to an eye or a wing, a spider
or a person.

1 5 8 T H E G O D D F L U S ) O N

3 The temptation is a false one, because the designer hypothesis
immediately raises the larger problem of who designed the
designer. The whole problem we started out with was the
problem of explaining statistical improbability. It is obviously
no solution to postulate something even more improbable. We
need a 'crane', not a 'skyhook', for only a crane can do the
business of working up gradually and plausibly from simplicity
to otherwise improbable complexity.

4 The most ingenious and powerful crane so far discovered is

Darwinian evolution by natural selection. Darwin and his
successors have shown how living creatures, with their
spectacular statistical improbability and appearance of design,
have evolved by slow, gradual degrees from simple beginnings.

We can now safely say that the illusion of design in living
creatures is just that - an illusion.

5 We don't yet have an equivalent crane for physics. Some kind
of multiverse theory could in principle do for physics the same
explanatory work as Darwinism does for biology. This kind of
explanation is superficially less satisfying than the biological
version of Darwinism, because it makes heavier demands on
luck. But the anthropic principle entitles us to postulate far
more luck than our limited human intuition is comfortable
with.

6 We should not give up hope of a better crane arising in physics,
something as powerful as Darwinism is for biology. But even in
the absence of a strongly satisfying crane to match the
biological one, the relatively weak cranes we have at present
are, when abetted by the anthropic principle, self-evidently
better than the self-defeating skyhook hypothesis of an
intelligent designer.

If the argument of this chapter is accepted, the factual premise
of religion - the God Hypothesis - is untenable. God almost cer-
tainly does not exist. This is the main conclusion of the book so far.

Various questions now follow. Even if we accept that God doesn't
exist, doesn't religion still have a lot going for it? Isn't it consoling?

W H Y T H E R i ; A L M O S T C E R T A I N L Y i S N O ( , ( ) [ ) 1 5 9

Doesn't it motivate people to do good? If it weren't for religion,
how would we know what is good? Why, in any case, be so hostile?

Why, if it is false, does every culture in the world have religion?

True or false, religion is ubiquitous, so where does it come from? It
is to this last question that we turn next.

CHAPTER 5

The roots of
religion

To an evolutionary psychologist, the universal extravagance
of religious rituals, with their costs in time, resources, pain and
privation, should suggest as vividly as a mandrill's bottom that
religion may be adaptive.

MAREK KOHN

T H E R O O T S O F R K 1. i G I () N 163

T H E DARWINIAN IMPERATIVE

Everybody has their own pet theory of where religion comes from
and why all human cultures have it. It gives consolation and
comfort. It fosters togetherness in groups. It satisfies our yearning
to understand why we exist. I shall come to explanations of this
kind in a moment, but I want to begin with a prior question, one
that takes precedence for reasons we shall see: a Darwinian ques-
tion about natural selection.

Knowing that we are products of Darwinian evolution, we
should ask what pressure or pressures exerted by natural selection
originally favoured the impulse to religion. The question gains
urgency from standard Darwinian considerations of economy.

Religion is so wasteful, so extravagant; and Darwinian selection
habitually targets and eliminates waste. Nature is a miserly
accountant, grudging the pennies, watching the clock, punishing
the smallest extravagance. Unrelentingly and unceasingly, as

Darwin explained, 'natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinis-
ing, throughout the world, every variation, even the slightest;
rejecting that which is bad, preserving and adding up all that is
good; silently and insensibly working, whenever and wherever
opportunity offers, at the improvement of each organic being'. If a
wild animal habitually performs some useless activity, natural
selection will favour rival individuals who devote the time and
energy, instead, to surviving and reproducing. Nature cannot afford
frivolous jeux d'esprit. Ruthless utilitarianism trumps, even if it
doesn't always seem that way.

On the face of it, the tail of a peacock is a jeu d'esprit par
excellence. It surely does no favours to the survival of its possessor.

But it does benefit the genes that distinguish him from his less
spectacular rivals. The tail is an advertisement, which buys its place
in the economy of nature by attracting females. The same is true of
the labour and time that a male bower bird devotes to his bower: a
sort of external tail built of grass, twigs, colourful berries, flowers
and, when available, beads, baubles and bottle caps. Or, to choose
an example that doesn't involve advertising, there is 'anting': the
odd habit of birds, such as jays, of 'bathing' in an ants' nest or

164 T H E C O D D E L U S I O N
otherwise applying ants to the feathers. Nobody is sure what the
benefit of anting is - perhaps some kind of hygiene, cleaning out
parasites from the feathers; there are various other hypotheses,
none of them strongly supported by evidence. But uncertainty as to
details doesn't - nor should it - stop Darwinians from presuming,
with great confidence, that anting must be 'for' something. In this
case common sense might agree, but Darwinian logic has a par-
ticular reason for thinking that, if the birds didn't do it, their
statistical prospects of genetic success would be damaged, even if
we don't yet know the precise route of the damage. The conclusion
follows from the twin premises that natural selection punishes
wastage of time and energy, and that birds are consistently observed
to devote time and energy to anting. If there is a one-sentence man-
ifesto of this 'adaptationist' principle, it was expressed - admittedly
in somewhat extreme and exaggerated terms - by the distinguished

Harvard geneticist Richard Lewontin: 'That is the one point which

I think all evolutionists are agreed upon, that it is virtually impos-
sible to do a better job than an organism is doing in its own
environment.'75 If anting wasn't positively useful for survival and
reproduction, natural selection would long ago have favoured
individuals who refrained from it. A Darwinian might be tempted
to say the same of religion; hence the need for this discussion.

To an evolutionist, religious rituals 'stand out like peacocks in a
sunlit glade' (Dan Dennett's phrase). Religious behaviour is a writ-
large human equivalent of anting or bower-building. It is
time-consuming, energy-consuming, often as extravagantly ornate
as the plumage of a bird of paradise. Religion can endanger the life
of the pious individual, as well as the lives of others. Thousands of
people have been tortured for their loyalty to a religion, persecuted
by zealots for what is in many cases a scarcely distinguishable alter-
native faith. Religion devours resources, sometimes on a massive
scale. A medieval cathedral could consume a hundred man-
centuries in its construction, yet was never used as a dwelling, or
for any recognizably useful purpose. Was it some kind of architec-
tural peacock's tail? If so, at whom was the advertisement aimed?

Sacred music and devotional paintings largely monopolized
medieval and Renaissance talent. Devout people have died for their
gods and killed for them; whipped blood from their backs, sworn

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 165
themselves to a lifetime of celibacy or to lonely silence, all in the
service of religion. What is it all for? What is the benefit of religion?

By 'benefit', the Darwinian normally means some enhancement
to the survival of the individual's genes. What is missing from this
is the important point that Darwinian benefit is not restricted to
the genes of the individual organism. There are three possible alter-
native targets of benefit. One arises from the theory of group
selection, and I'll come to that. The second follows from the theory
that I advocated in The Extended Phenotype: the individual you are
watching may be working under the manipulative influence of
genes in another individual, perhaps a parasite. Dan Dennett
reminds us that the common cold is universal to all human peoples
in much the same way as religion is, yet we would not want to
suggest that colds benefit us. Plenty of examples are known of
animals manipulated into behaving in such a way as to benefit the
transmission of a parasite to its next host. I encapsulated the point
in my 'central theorem of the extended phenotype': 'An animal's
behaviour tends to maximize the survival of the genes "for" that
behaviour, whether or not those genes happen to be in the body of
the particular animal performing it.'

Third, the 'central theorem' may substitute for 'genes' the more
general term 'replicators'. The fact that religion is ubiquitous prob-
ably means that it has worked to the benefit of something, but it
may not be us or our genes. It may be to the benefit of only the
religious ideas themselves, to the extent that they behave in a some-
what gene-like way, as replicators. I shall deal with this below,
under the heading 'Tread softly, because you tread on my memes'.

Meanwhile, I press on with more traditional interpretations of

Darwinism, in which 'benefit' is assumed to mean benefit to
individual survival and reproduction.

Hunter-gatherer peoples such as Australian aboriginal tribes
presumably live in something like the way our distant ancestors did.

The New Zealand/Australian philosopher of science Kim Sterelny
points up a dramatic contrast in their lives. On the one hand
aboriginals are superb survivors under conditions that test their
practical skills to the uttermost. But, Sterelny goes on, intelligent as
our species might be, we are perversely intelligent. The very same
peoples who are so savvy about the natural world and how to

1 6 6 T H E C, () D I) E L U S I O N
survive in it simultaneously clutter their minds with beliefs that are
palpably false and for which the word 'useless' is a generous under-
statement. Sterelny himself is familiar with aboriginal peoples of

Papua New Guinea. They survive under arduous conditions where
food is hard to come by, by dint of 'a legendarily accurate under-
standing of their biological environment. But they combine this
understanding with deep and destructive obsessions about female
menstrual pollution and about witchcraft. Many of the local
cultures are tormented by fears of witchcraft and magic, and by the
violence that accompanies those fears.' Sterelny challenges us to
explain 'how we can be simultaneously so smart and so dumb'.76

Though the details differ across the world, no known culture
lacks some version of the time-consuming, wealth-consuming,
hostility-provoking rituals, the anti-factual, counter-productive
fantasies of religion. Some educated individuals may have
abandoned religion, but all were brought up in a religious culture
from which they usually had to make a conscious decision to
depart. The old Northern Ireland joke, 'Yes, but are you a

Protestant atheist or a Catholic atheist?', is spiked with bitter truth.

Religious behaviour can be called a human universal in the same
way as heterosexual behaviour can. Both generalizations allow
individual exceptions, but all those exceptions understand only too
well the rule from which they have departed. Universal features of
a species demand a Darwinian explanation.

Obviously, there is no difficulty in explaining the Darwinian
advantage of sexual behaviour. It is about making babies, even on
those occasions where contraception or homosexuality seems to
belie it. But what about religious behaviour? Why do humans fast,
kneel, genuflect, self-flagellate, nod maniacally towards a wall,
crusade, or otherwise indulge in costly practices that can consume
life and, in extreme cases, terminate it?

DIRECT ADVANTAGES OF RELIGION

There is a little evidence that religious belief protects people from
stress-related diseases. The evidence is not strong, but it would not

T H E R O O T S ( ) 1 ; R f c L I G I O N 1 6 7
be surprising if it were true, for the same kind of reason as faith-
healing might turn out to work in a few cases. I wish it were not
necessary to add that such beneficial effects in no way boost the
truth value of religion's claims. In George Bernard Shaw's words,

'The fact that a believer is happier than a skeptic is no more to the
point than the fact that a drunken man is happier than a sober one.'

Part of what a doctor can give a patient is consolation and re-
assurance. This is not to be dismissed out of hand. My doctor
doesn't literally practise faith-healing by laying on of hands. But
many's the time I've been instantly 'cured' of some minor ailment
by a reassuring voice from an intelligent face surmounting a
stethoscope. The placebo effect is well documented and not even
very mysterious. Dummy pills, with no pharmacological activity at
all, demonstrably improve health. That is why double-blind drug
trials must use placebos as controls. It's why homoeopathic
remedies appear to work, even though they are so dilute that they
have the same amount of active ingredient as the placebo control -
zero molecules. Incidentally, an unfortunate by-product of the
encroachment by lawyers on doctors' territory is that doctors are
now afraid to prescribe placebos in normal practice. Or
bureaucracy may oblige them to identify the placebo in written
notes to which the patient has access, which of course defeats the
object. Homoeopaths may be achieving relative success because
they, unlike orthodox practitioners, are still allowed to administer
placebos - under another name. They also have more time to
devote to talking and simply being kind to the patient. In the early
part of its long history, moreover, homoeopathy's reputation was
inadvertently enhanced by the fact that its remedies did nothing at
all - by contrast with orthodox medical practices, such as blood-
letting, which did active harm.

Is religion a placebo that prolongs life by reducing stress?

Possibly, although the theory must run a gauntlet of sceptics who
point out the many circumstances in which religion causes rather
than relieves stress. It is hard to believe, for example, that health is
improved by the semi-permanent state of morbid guilt suffered by
a Roman Catholic possessed of normal human frailty and less than
normal intelligence. Perhaps it is unfair to single out the Catholics.

The American comedian Cathy Ladman observes that 'All religions

168 T H E Ci O D I) E L U S 1 O N
are the same: religion is basically guilt, with different holidays.' In
any case, I find the placebo theory unworthy of the massively
pervasive worldwide phenomenon of religion. I don't think the
reason we have religion is that it reduced the stress levels of our
ancestors. That's not a big enough theory for the job, although it
may have played a subsidiary role. Religion is a large phenomenon
and it needs a large theory to explain it.

Other theories miss the point of Darwinian explanations
altogether. I'm talking about suggestions like 'religion satisfies our
curiosity about the universe and our place in it', or 'religion is
consoling'. There may be some psychological truth here, as we shall
see in Chapter 10, but neither is in itself a Darwinian explanation.

As Steven Pinker pointedly said of the consolation theory, in How
the Mind Works: 'it only raises the question of why a mind would
evolve to find comfort in beliefs it can plainly see are false. A freez-
ing person finds no comfort in believing he is warm; a person
face-to-face with a lion is not put at ease by the conviction that it is
a rabbit.' At the very least, the consolation theory needs to be trans-
lated into Darwinian terms, and that is harder than you might
think. Psychological explanations to the effect that people find
some belief agreeable or disagreeable are proximate, not ultimate,
explanations.

Darwinians make much of this distinction between proximate
and ultimate. The proximate explanation for the explosion in the
cylinder of an internal combustion engine invokes the sparking
plug. The ultimate explanation concerns the purpose for which the
explosion was designed: to impel a piston from the cylinder, thereby
turning a crankshaft. The proximate cause of religion might be
hyperactivity in a particular node of the brain. I shall not pursue the
neurological idea of a 'god centre' in the brain because I am not
concerned here with proximate questions. That is not to belittle
them. I recommend Michael Shermer's How We Believe: The Search
for God in an Age of Science for a succinct discussion, which includes
the suggestion by Michael Persinger and others that visionary
religious experiences are related to temporal lobe epilepsy.

But my preoccupation in this chapter is with Darwinian ultimate
explanations. If neuroscientists find a 'god centre' in the brain,

Darwinian scientists like me will still want to understand the

T H 1-; R O O T S O F R E I 1 C 1 O N 169
natural selection pressure that favoured it. Why did those of our
ancestors who had a genetic tendency to grow a god centre survive
to have more grandchildren than rivals who didn't? The Darwinian
ultimate question is not a better question, not a more profound
question, not a more scientific question than the neurological
proximate question. But it is the one I am talking about here.

Nor are Darwinians satisfied by political explanations, such as

'Religion is a tool used by the ruling class to subjugate the under-
class.' It is surely true that black slaves in America were consoled
by promises of another life, which blunted their dissatisfaction with
this one and thereby benefited their owners. The question of
whether religions are deliberately designed by cynical priests or
rulers is an interesting one, to which historians should attend. But
it is not, in itself, a Darwinian question. The Darwinian still wants
to know why people are vulnerable to the charms of religion and
therefore open to exploitation by priests, politicians and kings.

A cynical manipulator might use sexual lust as a tool of political
power, but we still need the Darwinian explanation of why it
works. In the case of sexual lust, the answer is easy: our brains are
set up to enjoy sex because sex, in the natural state, makes babies.

Or a political manipulator might use torture to achieve his ends.

Once again, the Darwinian must supply the explanation for why
torture is effective; why we will do almost anything to avoid intense
pain. Again it seems obvious to the point of banality, but the

Darwinian still needs to spell it out: natural selection has set up the
perception of pain as a token of life-threatening bodily damage, and
programmed us to avoid it. Those rare individuals who cannot feel
pain, or don't care about it, usually die young of injuries which the
rest of us would have taken steps to avoid. Whether it is cynically
exploited, or whether it just manifests itself spontaneously, what
ultimately explains the lust for gods?

GROUP SELECTION

Some alleged ultimate explanations turn out to be - or avowedly
are - 'group-selection' theories. Group selection is the controversial

170 T H E G O D D E I. U S I O N
idea that Darwinian selection chooses among species or other
groups of individuals. The Cambridge archaeologist Colin Renfrew
suggests that Christianity survived by a form of group selection
because it fostered the idea of in-group loyalty and in-group
brotherly love, and this helped religious groups to survive at the
expense of less religious groups. The American group-selection
apostle D. S. Wilson independently developed a similar suggestion
at more length, in Darwin's Cathedral.

Here's an invented example, to show what a group-selection
theory of religion might look like. A tribe with a stirringly
belligerent 'god of battles' wins wars against rival tribes whose gods
urge peace and harmony, or tribes with no gods at all. Warriors
who unshakeably believe that a martyr's death will send them
straight to paradise fight bravely, and willingly give up their lives.

So tribes with this kind of religion are more likely to survive in
inter-tribal warfare, steal the conquered tribe's livestock and seize
their women as concubines. Such successful tribes prolifically
spawn daughter tribes that go off and propagate more daughter
tribes, all worshipping the same tribal god. The idea of a group
spawning daughter groups, like a beehive throwing off swarms, is
not implausible, by the way. The anthropologist Napoleon

Chagnon mapped just such fissioning of villages in his celebrated
study of the 'Fierce People', the Yanomamo of the South American
jungle.77

Chagnon is not a supporter of group selection, and nor am I.

There are formidable objections to it. A partisan in the controversy,

I must beware of riding off on my pet steed Tangent, far from the
main track of this book. Some biologists betray a confusion
between true group selection, as in my hypothetical example of the
god of battles, and something else which they call group selection
but which turns out on closer inspection to be either kin
selection or reciprocal altruism (see Chapter 6).

Those of us who belittle group selection admit that in principle
it can happen. The question is whether it amounts to a significant
force in evolution. When it is pitted against selection at lower levels

- as when group selection is advanced as an explanation for
individual self-sacrifice - lower-level selection is likely to be
stronger. In our hypothetical tribe, imagine a single self-interested

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 1 7 1
warrior in an army dominated by aspiring martyrs eager to die for
the tribe and earn a heavenly reward. He will be only slightly less
likely to end up on the winning side as a result of hanging back in
the battle to save his own skin. The martyrdom of his comrades will
benefit him more than it benefits each one of them on average,
because they will be dead. He is more likely to reproduce than they
are, and his genes for refusing to be martyred are more likely to be
reproduced into the next generation. Hence tendencies towards
martyrdom will decline in future generations.

This is a simplified toy example, but it illustrates a perennial
problem with group selection. Group-selection theories of in-
dividual self-sacrifice are always vulnerable to subversion from
within. Individual deaths and reproductions occur on a faster
timescale and with greater frequency than group extinctions and
fissionings. Mathematical models can be crafted to come up with
special conditions under which group selection might be evolution-
arily powerful. These special conditions are usually unrealistic in
nature, but it can be argued that religions in human tribal group-
ings foster just such otherwise unrealistic special conditions. This is
an interesting line of theory, but I shall not pursue it here except to
concede that Darwin himself, though he was normally a staunch
advocate of selection at the level of the individual organism, came
as close as he ever came to group selectionism in his discussion of
human tribes:

When two tribes of primeval man, living in the same
country, came into competition, if the one tribe included

(other circumstances being equal) a greater number of
courageous, sympathetic, and faithful members, who were
always ready to warn each other of danger, to aid and
defend each other, this tribe would without doubt succeed
best and conquer the other . . . Selfish and contentious
people will not cohere, and without coherence nothing
can be effected. A tribe possessing the above qualities in a
high degree would spread and be victorious over other
tribes; but in the course of time it would, judging from all
past history, be in turn overcome by some other and still
more highly-endowed tribe.78

172 T H ¥. G O D I) E I, U S 1 O N

To satisfy any biological specialists who might be reading this, I
should add that Darwin's idea was not strictly group selection, in
the true sense of successful groups spawning daughter groups
whose frequency might be counted in a metapopulation of groups.

Rather, Darwin visualized tribes with altruistically co-operative
members spreading and becoming more numerous in terms of
numbers of individuals. Darwin's model is more like the spread
of the grey squirrel in Britain at the expense of the red: ecological
replacement, not true group selection.

RELIGION AS A BY-PRODUCT OF

SOMETHING ELSE

In any case, I want now to set aside group selection and turn to my
own view of the Darwinian survival value of religion. I am one of
an increasing number of biologists who see religion as a by-product
of something else. More generally, I believe that we who speculate
about Darwinian survival value need to 'think by-product'. When
we ask about the survival value of anything, we may be asking the
wrong question. We need to rewrite the question in a more helpful
way. Perhaps the feature we are interested in (religion in this case)

doesn't have a direct survival value of its own, but is a by-product
of something else that does. I find it helpful to introduce the by-
product idea with an analogy from my own field of animal
behaviour.

Moths fly into the candle flame, and it doesn't look like an
accident. They go out of their way to make a burnt offering of
themselves. We could label it 'self-immolation behaviour' and,
under that provocative name, wonder how on earth natural
selection could favour it. My point is that we must rewrite the
question before we can even attempt an intelligent answer. It isn't
suicide. Apparent suicide emerges as an inadvertent side-effect or
by-product of something else. A by-product of . . . what? Well,
here's one possibility, which will serve to make the point.

Artificial light is a recent arrival on the night scene. Until

T H I', R O () T S O F R K I. I G I O N 173
recently, the only night lights on view were the moon and the stars.

They are at optical infinity, so rays coming from them are parallel.

This fits them for use as compasses. Insects are known to use
celestial objects such as the sun and the moon to steer accurately in
a straight line, and they can use the same compass, with reversed
sign, for returning home after a foray. The insect nervous system is
adept at setting up a temporary rule of thumb of this kind: 'Steer a
course such that the light rays hit your eye at an angle of 30
degrees.' Since insects have compound eyes (with straight tubes or
light guides radiating out from the centre of the eye like the spines
of a hedgehog), this might amount in practice to something as
simple as keeping the light in one particular tube or ommatidium.

But the light compass relies critically on the celestial object being
at optical infinity. If it isn't, the rays are not parallel but diverge like
the spokes of a wheel. A nervous system applying a 30-degree (or
any acute angle) rule of thumb to a nearby candle, as though it were
the moon at optical infinity, will steer the moth, via a spiral
trajectory, into the flame. Draw it out for yourself, using some par-
ticular acute angle such as 30 degrees, and you'll produce an
elegant logarithmic spiral into the candle.

Though fatal in this particular circumstance, the moth's rule of
thumb is still, on average, a good one because, for a moth, sightings
of candles are rare compared with sightings of the moon. We don't
notice the hundreds of moths that are silently and effectively steer-
ing by the moon or a bright star, or even the glow from a distant
city. We see only moths wheeling into our candle, and we ask the
wrong question: Why are all these moths committing suicide?

Instead, we should ask why they have nervous systems that steer by
maintaining a fixed angle to light rays, a tactic that we notice only
where it goes wrong. When the question is rephrased, the mystery
evaporates. It never was right to call it suicide. It is a misfiring by-
product of a normally useful compass.

Now, apply the by-product lesson to religious behaviour in
humans. We observe large numbers of people - in many areas it
amounts to 100 per cent - who hold beliefs that flatly contradict
demonstrable scientific facts as well as rival religions followed by
others. People not only hold these beliefs with passionate certitude,
but devote time and resources to costly activities that flow from

174 T H E C, O D D F. 1. U S 1 () N
holding them. They die for them, or kill for them. We marvel at
this, just as we marvelled at the 'self-immolation behaviour' of the
moths. Baffled, we ask why. But my point is that we may be asking
the wrong question. The religious behaviour may be a misfiring, an
unfortunate by-product of an underlying psychological propensity
which in other circumstances is, or once was, useful. On this view,
the propensity that was naturally selected in our ancestors was not
religion per se; it had some other benefit, and it only incidentally
manifests itself as religious behaviour. We shall understand religious
behaviour only after we have renamed it.

If, then, religion is a by-product of something else, what is that
something else? What is the counterpart to the moth habit of
navigating by celestial light compasses? What is the primitively
advantageous trait that sometimes misfires to generate religion? I
shall offer one suggestion by way of illustration, but I must stress
that it is only an example of the kind of thing I mean, and I shall
come on to parallel suggestions made by others. I am much more
wedded to the general principle that the question should be
properly put, and if necessary rewritten, than I am to any particular
answer.

My specific hypothesis is about children. More than any other
species, we survive by the accumulated experience of previous
generations, and that experience needs to be passed on to children
for their protection and well-being. Theoretically, children might
learn from personal experience not to go too near a cliff edge, not
to eat untried red berries, not to swim in crocodile-infested waters.

But, to say the least, there will be a selective advantage to child
brains that possess the rule of thumb: believe, without question,
whatever your grown-ups tell you. Obey your parents; obey the
tribal elders, especially when they adopt a solemn, minatory tone.

Trust your elders without question. This is a generally valuable rule
for a child. But, as with the moths, it can go wrong.

I have never forgotten a horrifying sermon, preached in my
school chapel when I was little. Horrifying in retrospect, that is: at
the time, my child brain accepted it in the spirit intended by the
preacher. He told us a story of a squad of soldiers, drilling beside a
railway line. At a critical moment the drill sergeant's attention was
distracted, and he failed to give the order to halt. The soldiers were

T H L R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 1 7 5
so well schooled to obey orders without question that they carried
on marching, right into the path of an oncoming train. Now, of
course, I don't believe the story and I hope the preacher didn't
either. But I believed it when I was nine, because I heard it from an
adult in authority over me. And whether he believed it or not, the
preacher wished us children to admire and model ourselves on the
soldiers' slavish and unquestioning obedience to an order, however
preposterous, from an authority figure. Speaking for myself, I think
we did admire it. As an adult I find it almost impossible to credit
that my childhood self wondered whether I would have had the
courage to do my duty by marching under the train. But that, for
what it is worth, is how I remember my feelings. The sermon
obviously made a deep impression on me, for I have remembered it
and passed it on to you.

To be fair, I don't think the preacher thought he was serving up
a religious message. It was probably more military than religious,
in the spirit of Tennyson's 'Charge of the Light Brigade', which he
may well have quoted:

'Forward the Light Brigade!'

Was there a man dismayed?

Not though the soldiers knew

Some one had blundered:

Theirs not to make reply,

Theirs not to reason why,

Theirs but to do and die:

Into the valley of Death

Rode the six hundred.

(One of the earliest and scratchiest recordings of the human voice
ever made is of Lord Tennyson himself reading this poem, and the
impression of hollow declaiming down a long, dark tunnel from the
depths of the past seems eerily appropriate.) From the high
command's point of view it would be madness to allow each
individual soldier discretion over whether or not to obey orders.

Nations whose infantrymen act on their own initiative rather than
following orders will tend to lose wars. From the nation's point of
view, this remains a good rule of thumb even if it sometimes leads

176 T H E Ci O D D E L U S I O N
to individual disasters. Soldiers are drilled to become as much like
automata, or computers, as possible.

Computers do what they are told. They slavishly obey any
instructions given in their own programming language. This is how
they do useful things like word processing and spreadsheet calcu-
lations. But, as an inevitable by-product, they are equally robotic in
obeying bad instructions. They have no way of telling whether an
instruction will have a good effect or a bad. They simply obey, as
soldiers are supposed to. It is their unquestioning obedience that
makes computers useful, and exactly the same thing makes them
inescapably vulnerable to infection by software viruses and worms.

A maliciously designed program that says, 'Copy me and send me
to every address that you find on this hard disk' will simply be
obeyed, and then obeyed again by the other computers down the
line to which it is sent, in exponential expansion. It is difficult, per-
haps impossible, to design a computer which is usefully obedient
and at the same time immune to infection.

If I have done my softening-up work well, you will already have
completed my argument about child brains and religion. Natural
selection builds child brains with a tendency to believe whatever
their parents and tribal elders tell them. Such trusting obedience is
valuable for survival: the analogue of steering by the moon for a
moth. But the flip side of trusting obedience is slavish gullibility.

The inevitable by-product is vulnerability to infection by mind
viruses. For excellent reasons related to Darwinian survival, child
brains need to trust parents, and elders whom parents tell them to
trust. An automatic consequence is that the truster has no way of dis-
tinguishing good advice from bad. The child cannot know that 'Don't
paddle in the crocodile-infested Limpopo' is good advice but 'You
must sacrifice a goat at the time of the full moon, otherwise the rains
will fail' is at best a waste of time and goats. Both admonitions sound
equally trustworthy. Both come from a respected source and are
delivered with a solemn earnestness that commands respect and
demands obedience. The same goes for propositions about the world,
about the cosmos, about morality and about human nature. And,
very likely, when the child grows up and has children of her own, she
will naturally pass the whole lot on to her own children - nonsense
as well as sense - using the same infectious gravitas of manner.

T H E R O O T S O F R I: I. I (i I O N 177

On this model we should expect that, in different geographical
regions, different arbitrary beliefs, none of which have any factual
basis, will be handed down, to be believed with the same conviction
as useful pieces of traditional wisdom such as the belief that manure
is good for the crops. We should also expect that superstitions and
other non-factual beliefs will locally evolve - change over gener-
ations - either by random drift or by some sort of analogue of

Darwinian selection, eventually showing a pattern of significant
divergence from common ancestry. Languages drift apart from a
common progenitor given sufficient time in geographical separation

(I shall return to this point in a moment). The same seems to be true
of baseless and arbitrary beliefs and injunctions, handed down
the generations - beliefs that were perhaps given a fair wind by the
useful programmability of the child brain.

Religious leaders are well aware of the vulnerability of the child
brain, and the importance of getting the indoctrination in early. The

Jesuit boast, 'Give me the child for his first seven years, and I'll give
you the man,' is no less accurate (or sinister) for being hackneyed.

In more recent times, James Dobson, founder of today's infamous

'Focus on the Family' movement,* is equally acquainted with the
principle: 'Those who control what young people are taught, and
what they experience - what they see, hear, think, and believe - will
determine the future course for the nation.'79

But remember, my specific suggestion about the useful gullibility
of the child mind is only an example of the kind of thing that might
be the analogue of moths navigating by the moon or the stars. The
ethologist Robert Hinde, in Why Gods Persist, and the anthro-
pologists Pascal Boyer, in Religion Explained, and Scott Atran, in

In Gods We Trust, have independently promoted the general idea
of religion as a by-product of normal psychological dispositions -
many by-products, I should say, for the anthropologists especially
are concerned to emphasize the diversity of the world's religions as
well as what they have in common. The findings of anthropologists
seem weird to us only because they are unfamiliar. All religious
beliefs seem weird to those not brought up in them. Boyer did
research on the Fang people of Cameroon, who believe . . .

* I was amused when I saw 'Focus on your own damn family' on a car bumper
sticker in Colorado, but it now seems to me less funny. Maybe some children need
to be protected from indoctrination by their own parents (see Chapter 9).

178 T H E C O D D E L V S I ( ) N

. . . that witches have an extra internal animal-like organ
that flies away at night and ruins other people's crops or
poisons their blood. It is also said that these witches some-
times assemble for huge banquets, where they devour
their victims and plan future attacks. Many will tell you
that a friend of a friend actually saw witches flying over
the village at night, sitting on a banana leaf and throwing
magical darts at various unsuspecting victims.

Boyer continues with a personal anecdote:

I was mentioning these and other exotica over dinner in a

Cambridge college when one of our guests, a prominent

Cambridge theologian, turned to me and said: 'That is
what makes anthropology so fascinating and so difficult
too. You have to explain how people can believe such
nonsense.'' Which left me dumbfounded. The conversation
had moved on before I could find a pertinent response -
to do with kettles and pots.

Assuming that the Cambridge theologian was a mainstream

Christian, he probably believed some combination of the following:

• In the time of the ancestors, a man was born to a virgin
mother with no biological father being involved.

• The same fatherless man called out to a friend called Lazarus,
who had been dead long enough to stink, and Lazarus
promptly came back to life.

• The fatherless man himself came alive after being dead and
buried three days.

• Forty days later, the fatherless man went up to the top of a hill
and then disappeared bodily into the sky.

• If you murmur thoughts privately in your head, the fatherless
man, and his 'father' (who is also himself) will hear your
thoughts and may act upon them. He is simultaneously able to
hear the thoughts of everybody else in the world.

T 11 E R O O T S O F R K L 1 (. 1 O N 179

• If you do something bad, or something good, the same
fatherless man sees all, even if nobody else does. You may be
rewarded or punished accordingly, including after your death.

• The fatherless man's virgin mother never died but 'ascended'

bodily into heaven.

• Bread and wine, if blessed by a priest (who must have
testicles), 'become' the body and blood of the fatherless man.

What would an objective anthropologist, coming fresh to this set of
beliefs while on fieldwork in Cambridge, make of them?

PSYCHOLOGICALLY PRIMED FOR RELIGION

The idea of psychological by-products grows naturally out of the
important and developing field of evolutionary psychology.80

Evolutionary psychologists suggest that, just as the eye is an
evolved organ for seeing, and the wing an evolved organ for flying,
so the brain is a collection of organs (or 'modules') for dealing with
a set of specialist data-processing needs. There is a module for deal-
ing with kinship, a module for dealing with reciprocal exchanges, a
module for dealing with empathy, and so on. Religion can be seen
as a by-product of the misfiring of several of these modules, for
example the modules for forming theories of other minds, for form-
ing coalitions, and for discriminating in favour of in-group
members and against strangers. Any of these could serve as the
human equivalent of the moths' celestial navigation, vulnerable to
misfiring in the same kind of way as I suggested for childhood
gullibility. The psychologist Paul Bloom, another advocate of the

'religion is a by-product' view, points out that children have a
natural tendency towards a dualistic theory of mind. Religion, for
him, is a by-product of such instinctive dualism. We humans, he
suggests, and especially children, are natural born dualists.

A dualist acknowledges a fundamental distinction between
matter and mind. A monist, by contrast, believes that mind is a
manifestation of matter - material in a brain or perhaps a computer

180 T H E G O I) D E L U S 1 O N

- and cannot exist apart from matter. A dualist believes the mind is
some kind of disembodied spirit that inhabits the body and there-
fore conceivably could leave the body and exist somewhere else.

Dualists readily interpret mental illness as 'possession by devils',
those devils being spirits whose residence in the body is temporary,
such that they might be 'cast out'. Dualists personify inanimate
physical objects at the slightest opportunity, seeing spirits and
demons even in waterfalls and clouds.

F. Anstey's 1882 novel Vice Versa makes sense to a dualist, but
strictly should be incomprehensible to a dyed-in-the-wool monist
like me. Mr Bultitude and his son mysteriously find that they have
swapped bodies. The father, much to the son's glee, is obliged to go
to school in the son's body; while the son, in the father's body,
almost ruins the father's business through his immature decisions.

A similar plotline was used by P. G. Wodehouse in Laughing Gas,
where the Earl of Havershot and a child movie star go under the
anaesthetic at the same moment in neighbouring dentist's chairs,
and wake up in each other's bodies. Once again, the plot makes
sense only to a dualist. There has to be something corresponding to

Lord Havershot which is no part of his body, otherwise how could
he wake up in the body of a child actor?

Like most scientists, I am not a dualist, but I am nevertheless
easily capable of enjoying Vice Versa and Laughing Gas. Paul

Bloom would say this is because, even though I have learned to
be an intellectual monist, I am a human animal and therefore
evolved as an instinctive dualist. The idea that there is a me
perched somewhere behind my eyes and capable, at least in fiction,
of migrating into somebody else's head, is deeply ingrained in
me and in every other human being, whatever our intellectual
pretensions to monism. Bloom supports his contention with exper-
imental evidence that children are even more likely to be dualists
than adults are, especially extremely young children. This suggests
that a tendency to dualism is built into the brain and, according
to Bloom, provides a natural predisposition to embrace religious
ideas.

Bloom also suggests that we are innately predisposed to be
creationists. Natural selection 'makes no intuitive sense'. Children
are especially likely to assign purpose to everything, as the

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 181
psychologist Deborah Keleman tells us in her article 'Are children

"intuitive theists"?'81 Clouds are 'for raining'. Pointy rocks are 'so
that animals could scratch on them when they get itchy'. The
assignment of purpose to everything is called teleology. Children
are native teleologists, and many never grow out of it.

Native dualism and native teleology predispose us, given the
right conditions, to religion, just as my moths' light-compass
reaction predisposed them to inadvertent 'suicide'. Our innate
dualism prepares us to believe in a 'soul' which inhabits the body
rather than being integrally part of the body. Such a disembodied
spirit can easily be imagined to move on somewhere else after the
death of the body. We can also easily imagine the existence of a
deity as pure spirit, not an emergent property of complex matter
but existing independently of matter. Even more obviously, childish
teleology sets us up for religion. If everything has a purpose, whose
purpose is it? God's, of course.

But what is the counterpart of the usefulness of the moths' light
compass? Why might natural selection have favoured dualism and
teleology in the brains of our ancestors and their children? So far,
my account of the 'innate dualists' theory has simply posited that
humans are natural born dualists and teleologists. But what would
the Darwinian advantage be? Predicting the behaviour of entities in
our world is important for our survival, and we would expect
natural selection to have shaped our brains to do it efficiently and
fast. Might dualism and teleology serve us in this capacity? We may
understand this hypothesis better in the light of what the
philosopher Daniel Dennett has called the intentional stance.

Dennett has offered a helpful three-way classification of the

'stances' that we adopt in trying to understand and hence predict
the behaviour of entities such as animals, machines or each other.82

They are the physical stance, the design stance and the intentional
stance. The physical stance always works in principle, because
everything ultimately obeys the laws of physics. But working things
out using the physical stance can be very slow. By the time we have
sat down to calculate all the interactions of a complicated object's
moving parts, our prediction of its behaviour will probably be too
late. For an object that really is designed, like a washing machine
or a crossbow, the design stance is an economical short cut. We can

182 T H \l G O D D F I. U S 1 O N
guess how the object will behave by going over the head of physics
and appealing directly to design. As Dennett says,

Almost anyone can predict when an alarm clock will
sound on the basis of the most casual inspection of its
exterior. One does not know or care to know whether it is
spring wound, battery driven, sunlight powered, made of
brass wheels and jewel bearings or silicon chips - one just
assumes that it is designed so that the alarm will sound
when it is set to sound.

Living things are not designed, but Darwinian natural selection
licenses a version of the design stance for them. We get a short cut
to understanding the heart if we assume that it is 'designed' to
pump blood. Karl von Frisch was led to investigate colour vision in
bees (in the face of orthodox opinion that they were colour-blind)

because he assumed that the bright colours of flowers were

'designed' to attract them. The quotation marks are designed to
scare off mendacious creationists who might otherwise claim the
great Austrian zoologist as one of their own. Needless to say, he
was perfectly capable of translating the design stance into proper

Darwinian terms.

The intentional stance is another short cut, and it goes one
better than the design stance. An entity is assumed not merely to be
designed for a purpose but to be, or contain, an agent with
intentions that guide its actions. When you see a tiger, you had
better not delay your prediction of its probable behaviour. Never
mind the physics of its molecules, and never mind the design of its
limbs, claws and teeth. That cat intends to eat you, and it will
deploy its limbs, claws and teeth in flexible and resourceful ways to
carry out its intention. The quickest way to second-guess its
behaviour is to forget physics and physiology and cut to the
intentional chase. Note that, just as the design stance works even
for things that were not actually designed as well as things that
were, so the intentional stance works for things that don't have
deliberate conscious intentions as well as things that do.

It seems to me entirely plausible that the intentional stance has
survival value as a brain mechanism that speeds up decision-

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 183
making in dangerous circumstances, and in crucial social situations.

It is less immediately clear that dualism is a necessary concomitant
of the intentional stance. I shan't pursue the matter here, but I think
a case could be developed that some kind of theory of other minds,
which could fairly be described as dualistic, is likely to underlie the
intentional stance - especially in complicated social situations, and
even more especially where higher-order intentionality comes into
play.

Dennett speaks of third-order intentionality (the man believed
that the woman knew he wanted her), fourth-order (the woman
realized that the man believed that the woman knew he wanted her)

and even fifth-order intentionality (the shaman guessed that the
woman realized that the man believed that the woman knew he
wanted her). Very high orders of intentionality are probably con-
fined to fiction, as satirized in Michael Frayn's hilarious novel The

Tin Men: 'Watching Nunopoulos, Rick knew that he was almost
certain that Anna felt a passionate contempt for Fiddlingchild's
failure to understand her feelings about Fiddlingchild, and she
knew too that Nina knew she knew about Nunopoulos's know-
ledge . . . ' But the fact that we can laugh at such contortions of
other-mind inference in fiction is probably telling us something
important about the way our minds have been naturally selected to
work in the real world.

In its lower orders at least, the intentional stance, like the design
stance, saves time that might be vital to survival. Consequently,
natural selection shaped brains to deploy the intentional stance as
a short cut. We are biologically programmed to impute intentions
to entities whose behaviour matters to us. Once again, Paul Bloom
quotes experimental evidence that children are especially likely to
adopt the intentional stance. When small babies see an object
apparently following another object (for example, on a computer
screen), they assume that they are witnessing an active chase by an
intentional agent, and they demonstrate the fact by registering
surprise when the putative agent fails to pursue the chase.

The design stance and the intentional stance are useful brain
mechanisms, important for speeding up the second-guessing of
entities that really matter for survival, such as predators or
potential mates. But, like other brain mechanisms, these stances can

184 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
misfire. Children, and primitive peoples, impute intentions to the
weather, to waves and currents, to falling rocks. All of us are prone
to do the same thing with machines, especially when they let us
down. Many will remember with affection the day Basil Fawlty's
car broke down during his vital mission to save Gourmet Night
from disaster. He gave it fair warning, counted to three, then got
out of the car, seized a tree branch and thrashed it to within an inch
of its life. Most of us have been there, at least momentarily, with a
computer if not with a car. Justin Barrett coined the acronym

HADD, for hyperactive agent detection device. We hyperactively
detect agents where there are none, and this makes us suspect
malice or benignity where, in fact, nature is only indifferent. I catch
myself momentarily harbouring savage resentment against some
blameless inanimate such as my bicycle chain. There was a
poignant recent report of a man who tripped over his untied
shoelace in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, fell down the
stairs, and smashed three priceless Qing Dynasty vases: 'He landed
in the middle of the vases and they splintered into a million pieces.

He was still sitting there stunned when staff appeared. Everyone
stood around in silence, as if in shock. The man kept pointing to his
shoelace, saying, "There it is; that's the culprit." '83

Other by-product explanations of religion have been proposed
by Hinde, Shermer, Boyer, Atran, Bloom, Dennett, Keleman and
others. One especially intriguing possibility mentioned by Dennett
is that the irrationality of religion is a by-product of a particular
built-in irrationality mechanism in the brain: our tendency, which
presumably has genetic advantages, to fall in love.

The anthropologist Helen Fisher, in Why We Love, has beauti-
fully expressed the insanity of romantic love, and how over-the-top
it is compared with what might seem strictly necessary. Look at it
this way. From the point of view of a man, say, it is unlikely that
any one woman of his acquaintance is a hundred times more
lovable than her nearest competitor, yet that is how he is likely to
describe her when 'in love'. Rather than the fanatically
monogamous devotion to which we are susceptible, some sort of

'polyamory' is on the face of it more rational. (Polyamory is the
belief that one can simultaneously love several members of the
opposite sex, just as one can love more than one wine, composer,

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 1 8 5
book or sport.) We happily accept that we can love more than one
child, parent, sibling, teacher, friend or pet. When you think of it
like that, isn't the total exclusiveness that we expect of spousal love
positively weird? Yet it is what we expect, and it is what we set out
to achieve. There must be a reason.

Helen Fisher and others have shown that being in love is accom-
panied by unique brain states, including the presence of neurally
active chemicals (in effect, natural drugs) that are highly specific
and characteristic of the state. Evolutionary psychologists agree
with her that the irrational coup de foudre could be a mechanism
to ensure loyalty to one co-parent, lasting for long enough to rear
a child together. From a Darwinian point of view it is, no doubt,
important to choose a good partner, for all sorts of reasons. But,
once having made a choice - even a poor one - and conceived a
child, it is more important to stick with that one choice through
thick and thin, at least until the child is weaned.

Could irrational religion be a by-product of the irrationality
mechanisms that were originally built into the brain by selection for
falling in love? Certainly, religious faith has something of the same
character as falling in love (and both have many of the attributes of
being high on an addictive drug*). The neuropsychiatrist John

Smythies cautions that there are significant differences between the
brain areas activated by the two kinds of mania. Nevertheless, he
notes some similarities too:

One facet of the many faces of religion is intense love
focused on one supernatural person, i.e. God, plus
reverence for icons of that person. Human life is driven
largely by our selfish genes and by the processes of
reinforcement. Much positive reinforcement derives from
religion: warm and comforting feelings of being loved and
protected in a dangerous world, loss of fear of death, help
from the hills in response to prayer in difficult times, etc.

Likewise, romantic love for another real person (usually
of the other sex) exhibits the same intense concentration
on the other and related positive reinforcements. These
feelings can be triggered by icons of the other, such as
letters, photographs, and even, as in Victorian times, locks

* See my expose of the dangerous narcotic Gerin Oil: R. Dawkins, 'Gerin Oil',

Free Inquiry 24: 1, 2003, 9-11.

186 T H K G O D D F L. U S I O N
of hair. The state of being in love has many physiological
accompaniments, such as sighing like a furnace.84

I made the comparison between falling in love and religion in

1993, when I noted that the symptoms of an individual infected by
religion 'may be startlingly reminiscent of those more ordinarily
associated with sexual love. This is an extremely potent force in the
brain, and it is not surprising that some viruses have evolved to
exploit it' ('viruses' here is a metaphor for religions: my article was
called 'Viruses of the mind'). St Teresa of Avila's famously orgasmic
vision is too notorious to need quoting again. More seriously, and on
a less crudely sensual plane, the philosopher Anthony Kenny provides
moving testimony to the pure delight that awaits those who manage
to believe in the mystery of the transubstantiation. After describing
his ordination as a Roman Catholic priest, empowered by laying on
of hands to celebrate mass, he goes on that he vividly recalls
the exaltation of the first months during which I had the
power to say Mass. Normally a slow and sluggish riser, I
would leap early out of bed, fully awake and full of excite-
ment at the thought of the momentous act I was privileged
to perform . . .

It was touching the body of Christ, the closeness of the
priest to Jesus, which most enthralled me. I would gaze on
the Host after the words of consecration, soft-eyed like a
lover looking into the eyes of his beloved . . . Those early
days as a priest remain in my memory as days of ful-
filment and tremulous happiness; something precious, and
yet too fragile to last, like a romantic love-affair brought
up short by the reality of an ill-assorted marriage.

The equivalent of the moth's light-compass reaction is the
apparently irrational but useful habit of falling in love with one,
and only one, member of the opposite sex. The misfiring by-
product - equivalent to flying into the candle flame - is falling in
love with Yahweh (or with the Virgin Mary, or with a wafer, or
with Allah) and performing irrational acts motivated by such love.

The biologist Lewis Wolpert, in Six Impossible Things Before

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 187

Breakfast, makes a suggestion that can be seen as a generalization
of the idea of constructive irrationality. His point is that irrationally
strong conviction is a guard against fickleness of mind: 'if beliefs
that saved lives were not held strongly, it would have been dis-
advantageous in early human evolution. It would be a severe
disadvantage, for example, when hunting or making tools, to keep
changing one's mind.' The implication of Wolpert's argument is
that, at least under some circumstances, it is better to persist in an
irrational belief than to vacillate, even if new evidence or ratio-
cination favours a change. It is easy to see the 'falling in love'

argument as a special case, and it is correspondingly easy to see

Wolpert's 'irrational persistence' as yet another useful psychological
predisposition that could explain important aspects of irrational
religious behaviour: yet another by-product.

In his book Social Evolution, Robert Trivers enlarged on his

1976 evolutionary theory of self-deception. Self-deception is
hiding the truth from the conscious mind the better to
hide it from others. In our own species we recognize that
shifty eyes, sweaty palms and croaky voices may indicate
the stress that accompanies conscious knowledge of
attempted deception. By becoming unconscious of its
deception, the deceiver hides these signs from the
observer. He or she can lie without the nervousness that
accompanies deception.

The anthropologist Lionel Tiger says something similar in

Optimism: The Biology of Hope. The connection to the sort of con-
structive irrationality we have just been discussing is seen in

Trivers's paragraph about 'perceptual defense':

There is a tendency for humans consciously to see what
they wish to see. They literally have difficulty seeing
things with negative connotations while seeing with
increasing ease items that are positive. For example,
words that evoke anxiety, either because of an individual's
personal history or because of experimental manipulation,
require greater illumination before first being perceived.

188 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

The relevance of this to the wishful thinking of religion should need
no spelling out.

The general theory of religion as an accidental by-product - a
misfiring of something useful - is the one I wish to advocate. The
details are various, complicated and disputable. For the sake of
illustration, I shall continue to use my 'gullible child' theory as
representative of 'by-product' theories in general. This theory - that
the child brain is, for good reasons, vulnerable to infection by
mental 'viruses' - will strike some readers as incomplete.

Vulnerable the mind may be, but why should it be infected by this
virus rather than that? Are some viruses especially proficient at
infecting vulnerable minds? Why does 'infection' manifest itself as
religion rather than as . . . well, what? Part of what I want to say is
that it doesn't matter what particular style of nonsense infects the
child brain. Once infected, the child will grow up and infect
the next generation with the same nonsense, whatever it happens to
be.

An anthropological survey such as Frazer's Golden Bough
impresses us with the diversity of irrational human beliefs. Once
entrenched in a culture they persist, evolve and diverge, in a manner
reminiscent of biological evolution. Yet Frazer discerns certain
general principles, for example 'homoeopathic magic', whereby
spells and incantations borrow some symbolic aspect of the real-
world object they are intended to influence. An instance with tragic
consequences is the belief that powdered rhinoceros horn has
aphrodisiac properties. Fatuous as it is, the legend stems from the
horn's supposed resemblance to a virile penis. The fact that

'homoeopathic magic' is so widespread suggests that the nonsense
that infects vulnerable brains is not entirely random, arbitrary
nonsense.

It is tempting to pursue the biological analogy to the point of
wondering whether something corresponding to natural selection is
at work. Are some ideas more spreadable than others, because of
intrinsic appeal or merit, or compatibility with existing psycho-
logical dispositions, and could this account for the nature and
properties of actual religions as we see them, in something like the
way we use natural selection to account for living organisms? It is
important to understand that 'merit' here means only ability to

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G 1 0 N 1 8 9
survive and spread. It doesn't mean deserving of a positive value
judgement - something of which we might be humanly proud.

Even on an evolutionary model, there doesn't have to be any
natural selection. Biologists acknowledge that a gene may spread
through a population not because it is a good gene but simply
because it is a lucky one. We call this genetic drift. How important
it is vis-a-vis natural selection has been controversial. But it is now
widely accepted in the form of the so-called neutral theory of
molecular genetics. If a gene mutates to a different version of itself
which has an identical effect, the difference is neutral, and selection
cannot favour one or the other. Nevertheless, by what statisticians
call sampling error over generations, the new mutant form can
eventually replace the original form in the gene pool. This is a true
evolutionary change at the molecular level (even if no change is
observed in the world of whole organisms). It is a neutral
evolutionary change that owes nothing to selective advantage.

The cultural equivalent of genetic drift is a persuasive option,
one that we cannot neglect when thinking about the evolution of
religion. Language evolves in a quasi-biological way and the
direction its evolution takes looks undirected, pretty much like
random drift. It is handed down by a cultural analogue of genetics,
changing slowly over the centuries, until eventually various strands
have diverged to the point of mutual unintelligibility. It is possible
that some of the evolution of language is guided by a kind of natu-
ral selection, but that argument doesn't seem very persuasive. I'll
explain below that some such idea has been proposed for major
trends in language, such as the Great Vowel Shift which took place
in English from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century. But such a
functional hypothesis is not necessary to explain most of what we
observe. It seems probable that language normally evolves by the
cultural equivalent of random genetic drift. In different parts of

Europe, Latin drifted to become Spanish, Portuguese, Italian,

French, Romansche and the various dialects of these languages. It
is, to say the least, not obvious that these evolutionary shifts reflect
local advantages or 'selection pressures'.

I surmise that religions, like languages, evolve with sufficient
randomness, from beginnings that are sufficiently arbitrary, to
generate the bewildering - and sometimes dangerous - richness of

190 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
diversity that we observe. At the same time, it is possible that a
form of natural selection, coupled with the fundamental uniformity
of human psychology, sees to it that the diverse religions share
significant features in common. Many religions, for example, teach
the objectively implausible but subjectively appealing doctrine that
our personalities survive our bodily death. The idea of immortality
itself survives and spreads because it caters to wishful thinking. And
wishful thinking counts, because human psychology has a near-
universal tendency to let belief be coloured by desire ('Thy wish was
father, Harry, to that thought', as Henry IV Part II said to his son*).

There seems to be no doubt that many of the attributes of
religion are well fitted to helping the religion's own survival, and
the survival of the attributes concerned, in the stew of human
culture. The question now arises of whether the good fit is achieved
by 'intelligent design' or by natural selection. The answer is prob-
ably both. On the side of design, religious leaders are fully capable
of verbalizing the tricks that aid the survival of religion. Martin

Luther was well aware that reason was religion's arch-enemy, and
he frequently warned of its dangers: 'Reason is the greatest enemy
that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual things, but more
frequently than not struggles against the divine Word, treating with
contempt all that emanates from God.'85 Again: 'Whoever wants to
be a Christian should tear the eyes out of his reason.' And again:

'Reason should be destroyed in all Christians.' Luther would have
had no difficulty in intelligently designing unintelligent aspects of a
religion to help it survive. But that doesn't necessarily mean that he,
or anyone else, did design it. It could also have evolved by a (non-
genetic) form of natural selection, with Luther not its designer but
a shrewd observer of its efficacy.

Even though conventional Darwinian selection of genes might
have favoured psychological predispositions that produce religion
as a by-product, it is unlikely to have shaped the details. I have
already hinted that, if we are going to apply some form of selection
theory to those details, we should look not to genes but to their
cultural equivalents. Are religions such stuff as memes are made
on?

Not my joke: 1066 and All That.

T H E R O O T S O F R E L \ G I O N 191

TREAD SOFTLY, BECAUSE YOU TREAD ON

MY MEMES

Truth, in matters of religion, is simply the opinion
that has survived.

O S C A R W I L D E

This chapter began with the observation that, because Darwinian
natural selection abhors waste, any ubiquitous feature of a species

- such as religion - must have conferred some advantage or it
wouldn't have survived. But I hinted that the advantage doesn't
have to redound to the survival or reproductive success of the
individual. As we saw, advantage to the genes of the cold virus suf-
ficiently explains the ubiquity of that miserable complaint among
our species.* And it doesn't even have to be genes that benefit. Any
replicator will do. Genes are only the most obvious examples of
replicators. Other candidates are computer viruses, and memes -
units of cultural inheritance and the topic of this section. If we are
to understand memes, we have first to look a little more carefully
at exactly how natural selection works.

In its most general form, natural selection must choose between
alternative replicators. A replicator is a piece of coded information
that makes exact copies of itself, along with occasional inexact
copies or 'mutations'. The point about this is the Darwinian one.

Those varieties of replicator that happen to be good at getting
copied become more numerous at the expense of alternative
replicators that are bad at getting copied. That, at its most rudi-
mentary, is natural selection. The archetypal replicator is a gene, a
stretch of DNA that is duplicated, nearly always with extreme
accuracy, through an indefinite number of generations. The central
question for meme theory is whether there are units of cultural
imitation which behave as true replicators, like genes. I am not say-
ing that memes necessarily are close analogues of genes, only that
the more like genes they are, the better will meme theory work; and
the purpose of this section is to ask whether meme theory might
work for the special case of religion.

* Especially my nation, according to national stereotyping legend: 'Void I'anglais
avec son sang froid habituel' (Here is the Englishman with his habitual bloody
cold). This comes from Fractured French by F. S. Pearson, along with other gems
such as 'coup de grace' (lawnmower).

192 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

In the world of genes, the occasional flaws in replication

(mutations) see to it that the gene pool contains alternative variants
of any given gene - 'alleles' - which may therefore be seen as com-
peting with each other. Competing for what? For the particular
chromosomal slot or 'locus' that belongs to that set of alleles. And
how do they compete? Not by direct molecule-to-molecule combat
but by proxy. The proxies are their 'phenotypic traits' - things like
leg length or fur colour: manifestations of genes fleshed out as
anatomy, physiology, biochemistry or behaviour. A gene's fate is
normally bound up with the bodies in which it successively sits. To
the extent that it influences those bodies, it affects its own chances
of surviving in the gene pool. As the generations go by, genes
increase or decrease in frequency in the gene pool by virtue of their
phenotypic proxies.

Might the same be true of memes? One respect in which they are
not like genes is that there is nothing obviously corresponding to
chromosomes or loci or alleles or sexual recombination. The meme
pool is less structured and less organized than the gene pool.

Nevertheless, it is not obviously silly to speak of a meme pool, in
which particular memes might have a 'frequency' which can change
as a consequence of competitive interactions with alternative
memes.

Some people have objected to memetic explanations, on various
grounds that usually stem from the fact that memes are not entirely
like genes. The exact physical nature of a gene is now known (it is
a sequence of DNA) whereas that of memes is not, and different
memeticists confuse one another by switching from one physical
medium to another. Do memes exist only in brains? Or is every
paper copy and electronic copy of, say, a particular limerick also
entitled to be called a meme? Then again, genes replicate with very
high fidelity, whereas, if memes replicate at all, don't they do so
with low accuracy?

These alleged problems of memes are exaggerated. The most
important objection is the allegation that memes are copied with
insufficiently high fidelity to function as Darwinian replicators. The
suspicion is that if the 'mutation rate' in every generation is high,
the meme will mutate itself out of existence before Darwinian
selection can have an impact on its frequency in the meme pool. But

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 193
the problem is illusory. Think of a master carpenter, or a prehistoric
flint-knapper, demonstrating a particular skill to a young
apprentice. If the apprentice faithfully reproduced every hand
movement of the master, you would indeed expect to see the meme
mutate out of all recognition in a few 'generations' of
master/apprentice transmission. But of course the apprentice does
not faithfully reproduce every hand movement. It would be ridicu-
lous to do so. Instead, he notes the goal that the master is trying to
achieve, and imitates that. Drive in the nail until the head is flush,
using as many hammer blows as it takes, which may not be the
same number as the master used. It is such rules that can pass
unmutated down an indefinite number of imitation 'generations';
no matter that the details of their execution may vary from
individual to individual, and from case to case. Stitches in knitting,
knots in ropes or fishing nets, origami folding patterns, useful tricks
in carpentry or pottery: all can be reduced to discrete elements that
really do have the opportunity to pass down an indefinite number
of imitation generations without alteration. The details may
wander idiosyncratically, but the essence passes down unmutated,
and that is all that is needed for the analogy of memes with genes
to work.

In my foreword to Susan Blackmore's The Meme Machine I
developed the example of an origami procedure for making a model

Chinese junk. It is quite a complicated recipe, involving thirty-two
folding (or similar) operations. The end result (the Chinese junk
itself) is a pleasing object, as are at least three intermediate stages
in the 'embryology', namely the 'catamaran', the 'box with two
lids' and the 'picture frame'. The whole performance does indeed
remind me of the foldings and invaginations that the membranes of
an embryo undergo as it morphs itself from blastula to gastrula to
neurula. I learned to make the Chinese junk as a boy from my
father who, at about the same age, had acquired the skill at his
boarding school. A craze for making Chinese junks, initiated by the
school matron, had spread through the school in his time like a
measles epidemic, then died away, also like a measles epidemic.

Twenty-six years later, when that matron was long gone, I went to
the same school. I reintroduced the craze and it again spread, like
another measles epidemic, and then again died away. The fact that

194 T H E G O D D K I, U S 1 O N
such a teachable skill can spread like an epidemic tells us something
important about the high fidelity of memetic transmission. We may
be sure that the junks made by my father's generation of schoolboys
in the 1920s were in no general respect different from those made
by my generation in the 1950s.

We could investigate the phenomenon more systematically by
the following experiment: a variant of the childhood game of

Chinese Whispers (American children call it Telephone). Take two
hundred people who have never made a Chinese junk before, and
line them up in twenty teams of ten people each. Gather the heads
of the twenty teams around a table and teach them, by demon-
stration, how to make a Chinese junk. Now send each one off to
find the second person in his own team, and teach that person
alone, again by demonstration, to make a Chinese junk. Each
second 'generation' person then teaches the third person in her own
team, and so on until the tenth member of every team has been
reached. Keep all the junks made along the way, and label them by
their team and 'generation' number for subsequent inspection.

I haven't done the experiment yet (I'd like to), but I have a strong
prediction of what the result will be. My prediction is that not all
of the twenty teams will succeed in passing the skill intact down the
line to their tenth members, but that a significant number of them
will. In some of the teams there will be mistakes: perhaps a weak
link in the chain will forget some vital step in the procedure, and
everyone downstream of the mistake will then obviously fail.

Perhaps team 4 gets as far as the 'catamaran' but falters thereafter.

Perhaps the eighth member of team 13 produces a 'mutant' some-
where between the 'box with two lids' and the 'picture frame' and
the ninth and tenth members of his team then copy the mutated
version.

Now, of those teams in which the skill is transferred successfully to
the tenth generation, I make a further prediction. If you rank the junks
in order of 'generation' you will not see a systematic deterioration of
quality with generation number. If, on the other hand, you were to run
an experiment identical in all respects except that the skill transferred
was not origami but copying a drawing of a junk, there would
definitely be a systematic deterioration in the accuracy with which the
generation 1 pattern 'survived' to generation 10.

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 1 9 5

In the drawing version of the experiment, all the generation

10 drawings would bear some slight resemblance to the generation 1
drawing. And within each team, the resemblance would more or
less steadily deteriorate as you proceed down the generations. In the
origami version of the experiment, by contrast, the mistakes would
be all-or-none: they'd be 'digital' mutations. Either a team
would make no mistakes and the generation 10 junk would be no
worse, and no better, on average than that produced by generation

5 or generation 1; or there would be a 'mutation' in some particular
generation and all downstream efforts would be complete failures,
often faithfully reproducing the mutation.

What is the crucial difference between the two skills? It is that
the origami skill consists of a series of discrete actions, none of
which is difficult to perform in itself. Mostly the operations are
things like 'Fold both sides into the middle.' A particular team
member may execute the step ineptly, but it will be clear to the next
team member down the line what he is trying to do. The origami
steps are 'self-normalizing'. It is this that makes them 'digital'. It is
like my master carpenter, whose intention to flatten the nail head in
the wood is obvious to his apprentice, regardless of the details
of the hammer blows. Either you get a given step of the origami
recipe right or you don't. The drawing skill, by contrast, is an
analogue skill. Everybody can have a go, but some people copy a
drawing more accurately than others, and nobody copies it per-
fectly. The accuracy of the copy depends, too, on the amount of
time and care devoted to it, and these are continuously variable
quantities. Some team members, moreover, will embellish and

'improve', rather than strictly copy, the preceding model.

Words - at least when they are understood - are self-normalizing
in the same kind of way as origami operations. In the original game
of Chinese Whispers (Telephone) the first child is told a story, or a
sentence, and is asked to pass it on to the next child, and so on. If
the sentence is less than about seven words, in the native language
of all the children, there is a good chance that it will survive, un-
mutated, down ten generations. If it is in an unknown foreign
language, so that the children are forced to imitate phonetically
rather than word by word, the message does not survive. The pattern
of decay down the generations is then the same as for a drawing,

196 T H E G O D D E L U S 1 O N
and it will become garbled. When the message makes sense in the
children's own language, and doesn't contain any unfamiliar
words like 'phenotype' or 'allele', it survives. Instead of mimicking
the sounds phonetically, each child recognizes each word as a
member of a finite vocabulary and selects the same word, although
very probably pronounced in a different accent, when passing it
on to the next child. Written language is also self-normalizing
because the squiggles on paper, no matter how much they may
differ in detail, are all drawn from a finite alphabet of (say) twenty-
six letters.

The fact that memes can sometimes display very high fidelity,
due to self-normalizing processes of this kind, is enough to answer
some of the commonest objections that are raised to the meme/gene
analogy. In any case, the main purpose of meme theory, at this early
stage of its development, is not to supply a comprehensive theory
of culture, on a par with Watson-Crick genetics. My original
purpose in advocating memes, indeed, was to counter the im-
pression that the gene was the only Darwinian game in town - an
impression that The Selfish Gene was otherwise at risk of convey-
ing. Peter Richerson and Robert Boyd emphasize the point in the
title of their valuable and thoughtful book Not by Genes Alone,
although they give reasons for not adopting the word 'meme' itself,
preferring 'cultural variants'. Stephen Shennan's Genes, Memes and

Human History was partly inspired by an earlier excellent book by

Boyd and Richerson, Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Other
book-length treatments of memes include Robert Aunger's The

Electric Meme, Kate Distin's The Selfish Meme, and Virus of
the Mind: The New Science of the Meme by Richard Brodie.

But it is Susan Blackmore, in The Meme Machine, who has
pushed memetic theory further than anyone. She repeatedly visual-
izes a world full of brains (or other receptacles or conduits, such as
computers or radio frequency bands) and memes jostling to occupy
them. As with genes in a gene pool, the memes that prevail will be
the ones that are good at getting themselves copied. This may be
because they have direct appeal, as, presumably, the immortality
meme has for some people. Or it may be because they flourish in
the presence of other memes that have already become numerous
in the meme pool. This gives rise to meme complexes or

T H E R O O T S OF R E L I G I O N 197

'memeplexes'. As usual with memes, we gain understanding by
going back to the genetic origin of the analogy.

For didactic purposes, I treated genes as though they were
isolated units, acting independently. But of course they are not in-
dependent of one another, and this fact shows itself in two ways.

First, genes are linearly strung along chromosomes, and so tend to
travel through generations in the company of particular other genes
that occupy neighbouring chromosomal loci. We doctors call that
kind of linkage linkage, and I shall say no more about it because
memes don't have chromosomes, alleles or sexual recombination.

The other respect in which genes are not independent is very
different from genetic linkage, and here there is a good memetic
analogy. It concerns embryology which - the fact is often mis-
understood - is completely distinct from genetics. Bodies are not
jigsawed together as mosaics of phenotypic pieces, each one con-
tributed by a different gene. There is no one-to-one mapping
between genes and units of anatomy or behaviour. Genes

'collaborate' with hundreds of other genes in programming the
developmental processes that culminate in a body, in the same kind
of way as the words of a recipe collaborate in a cookery process
that culminates in a dish. It is not the case that each word of the
recipe corresponds to a different morsel of the dish.

Genes, then, co-operate in cartels to build bodies, and that is one
of the important principles of embryology. It is tempting to say that
natural selection favours cartels of genes in a kind of group
selection between alternative cartels. That is confusion. What really
happens is that the other genes of the gene pool constitute a major
part of the environment in which each gene is selected versus its
alleles. Because each is selected to be successful in the presence of
the others - which are also being selected in a similar way - cartels
of co-operating genes emerge. We have here something more like a
free market than a planned economy. There is a butcher and
a baker, but perhaps a gap in the market for a candlestick maker.

The invisible hand of natural selection fills the gap. That is differ-
ent from having a central planner who favours the troika of butcher

+ baker + candlestick maker. The idea of co-operating cartels
assembled by the invisible hand will turn out to be central to our
understanding of religious memes and how they work.

198 T H H G O D D E L U S I G N

Different kinds of gene cartel emerge in different gene pools.

Carnivore gene pools have genes that program prey-detecting sense
organs, prey-catching claws, carnassial teeth, meat-digesting
enzymes and many other genes, all fine-tuned to co-operate with
each other. At the same time, in herbivore gene pools, different sets
of mutually compatible genes are favoured for their co-operation
with each other. We are familiar with the idea that a gene is
favoured for the compatibility of its phenotype with the external
environment of the species: desert, woodland or whatever it is. The
point I am now making is that it is also favoured for its compati-
bility with the other genes of its particular gene pool. A carnivore
gene would not survive in a herbivore gene pool, and vice versa. In
the long gene's-eye-view, the gene pool of the species - the set of
genes that are shuffled and reshuffled by sexual reproduction - con-
stitutes the genetic environment in which each gene is selected for
its capacity to co-operate. Although meme pools are less
regimented and structured than gene pools, we can still speak of a
meme pool as an important part of the 'environment' of each meme
in the memeplex.

A memeplex is a set of memes which, while not necessarily being
good survivors on their own, are good survivors in the presence of
other members of the memeplex. In the previous section I doubted
that the details of language evolution are favoured by any kind of
natural selection. I guessed that language evolution is instead
governed by random drift. It is just conceivable that certain vowels
or consonants carry better than others through mountainous
terrain, and therefore might become characteristic of, say Swiss,

Tibetan and Andean dialects, while other sounds are suitable for
whispering in dense forests and are therefore characteristic of

Pygmy and Amazonian languages. But the one example I cited of
language being naturally selected - the theory that the Great Vowel

Shift might have a functional explanation - is not of this type.

Rather, it has to do with memes fitting in with mutually compatible
memeplexes. One vowel shifted first, for reasons unknown - per-
haps fashionable imitation of an admired or powerful individual, as
is alleged to be the origin of the Spanish lisp. Never mind how the

Great Vowel Shift started: according to this theory, once the first
vowel had changed, other vowels had to shift in its train, to reduce

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 199
ambiguity, and so on in cascade. In this second stage of the
process, memes were selected against the background of already
existing meme pools, building up a new memeplex of mutually
compatible memes.

We are finally equipped to turn to the memetic theory of
religion. Some religious ideas, like some genes, might survive
because of absolute merit. These memes would survive in any meme
pool, regardless of the other memes that surround them. (I must
repeat the vitally important point that 'merit' in this sense means
only 'ability to survive in the pool'. It carries no value judgement
apart from that.) Some religious ideas survive because they are
compatible with other memes that are already numerous in the
meme pool - as part of a memeplex. The following is a partial list
of religious memes that might plausibly have survival value in the
meme pool, either because of absolute 'merit' or because of com-
patibility with an existing memeplex:

• You will survive your own death.

• If you die a martyr, you will go to an especially wonderful
part of paradise where you will enjoy seventy-two virgins

(spare a thought for the unfortunate virgins).

• Heretics, blasphemers and apostates should be killed (or
otherwise punished, for example by ostracism from their
families).

• Belief in God is a supreme virtue. If you find your belief waver-
ing, work hard at restoring it, and beg God to help your
unbelief. (In my discussion of Pascal's Wager I mentioned the
odd assumption that the one thing God really wants of us is
belief. At the time I treated it as an oddity. Now we have an
explanation for it.)

• Faith (belief without evidence) is a virtue. The more your
beliefs defy the evidence, the more virtuous you are. Virtuoso
believers who can manage to believe something really weird,
unsupported and insupportable, in the teeth of evidence and
reason, are especially highly rewarded.

2 0 0 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

• Everybody, even those who do not hold religious beliefs, must
respect them with a higher level of automatic and unquestioned
respect than that accorded to other kinds of belief (we met this
in Chapter 1).

• There are some weird things (such as the Trinity, transubstanti-
ation, incarnation) that we are not meant to understand. Don't
even try to understand one of these, for the attempt might
destroy it. Learn how to gain fulfilment in calling it a mystery.

• Beautiful music, art and scriptures are themselves self-
replicating tokens of religious ideas.*

Some of the above list probably have absolute survival value and
would flourish in any memeplex. But, as with genes, some memes
survive only against the right background of other memes, leading
to the build-up of alternative memeplexes. Two different religions
might be seen as two alternative memeplexes. Perhaps Islam is
analogous to a carnivorous gene complex, Buddhism to a
herbivorous one. The ideas of one religion are not 'better' than
those of the other in any absolute sense, any more than carnivorous
genes are 'better' than herbivorous ones. Religious memes of this
kind don't necessarily have any absolute aptitude for survival;
nevertheless, they are good in the sense that they flourish in the
presence of other memes of their own religion, but not in
the presence of memes of the other religion. On this model, Roman

Catholicism and Islam, say, were not necessarily designed by
individual people, but evolved separately as alternative collections
of memes that flourish in the presence of other members of the
same memeplex.

Organized religions are organized by people: by priests and
bishops, rabbis, imams and ayatollahs. But, to reiterate the point I
made with respect to Martin Luther, that doesn't mean they were
conceived and designed by people. Even where religions have been

* Different schools and genres of art can be analysed as alternative memeplexes,
as artists copy ideas and motifs from earlier artists, and new motifs survive only if
they mesh with others. Indeed, the whole academic discipline of History of Art,
with its sophisticated tracing of iconographies and symbolisms, could be seen as
an elaborate study in memeplexity. Details will have been favoured or disfavoured
by the presence of existing members of the meme pool, and these will often include
religious memes.

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 201
exploited and manipulated to the benefit of powerful individuals,
the strong possibility remains that the detailed form of each religion
has been largely shaped by unconscious evolution. Not by genetic
natural selection, which is too slow to account for the rapid
evolution and divergence of religions. The role of genetic natural
selection in the story is to provide the brain, with its predilections
and biases - the hardware platform and low-level system software
which form the background to memetic selection. Given this back-
ground, memetic natural selection of some kind seems to me to
offer a plausible account of the detailed evolution of particular
religions. In the early stages of a religion's evolution, before it
becomes organized, simple memes survive by virtue of their
universal appeal to human psychology. This is where the meme
theory of religion and the psychological by-product theory of
religion overlap. The later stages, where a religion becomes
organized, elaborate and arbitrarily different from other religions,
are quite well handled by the theory of memeplexes - cartels of
mutually compatible memes. This doesn't rule out the additional
role of deliberate manipulation by priests and others. Religions
probably are, at least in part, intelligently designed, as are schools
and fashions in art.

One religion that was intelligently designed, almost in its
entirety, is Scientology, but I suspect that it is exceptional. Another
candidate for a purely designed religion is Mormonism. Joseph

Smith, its enterprisingly mendacious inventor, went to the lengths
of composing a complete new holy book, the Book of Mormon,
inventing from scratch a whole new bogus American history,
written in bogus seventeenth-century English. Mormonism, how-
ever, has evolved since it was fabricated in the nineteenth century
and has now become one of the respectable mainstream religions of

America - indeed, it claims to be the fastest-growing one, and there
is talk of fielding a presidential candidate.

Most religions evolve. Whatever theory of religious evolution we
adopt, it has to be capable of explaining the astonishing speed with
which the process of religious evolution, given the right conditions,
can take off. A case study follows.

202 T H E G O D D R L U S I O N

CARGO CULTS

In The Life of Brian, one of the many things the Monty Python
team got right was the extreme rapidity with which a new religious
cult can get started. It can spring up almost overnight and then
become incorporated into a culture, where it plays a disquietingly
dominant role. The 'cargo cults' of Pacific Melanesia and New

Guinea provide the most famous real life example. The entire his-
tory of some of these cults, from initiation to expiry, is wrapped up
within living memory. Unlike the cult of Jesus, the origins of which
are not reliably attested, we can see the whole course of events laid
out before our eyes (and even here, as we shall see, some details are
now lost). It is fascinating to guess that the cult of Christianity
almost certainly began in very much the same way, and spread
initially at the same high speed.

My main authority for the cargo cults is David Attenborough's

Quest in Paradise, which he very kindly presented to me. The
pattern is the same for all of them, from the earliest cults in
the nineteenth century to the more famous ones that grew up in the
aftermath of the Second World War. It seems that in every case
the islanders were bowled over by the wondrous possessions of the
white immigrants to their islands, including administrators, soldiers
and missionaries. They were perhaps the victims of (Arthur C.)

Clarke's Third Law, which I quoted in Chapter 2: 'Any sufficiently
advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic'

The islanders noticed that the white people who enjoyed these
wonders never made them themselves. When articles needed repair-
ing they were sent away, and new ones kept arriving as 'cargo' in
ships or, later, planes. No white man was ever seen to make or
repair anything, nor indeed did they do anything that could be
recognized as useful work of any kind (sitting behind a desk
shuffling papers was obviously some kind of religious devotion).

Evidently, then, the 'cargo' must be of supernatural origin. As if in
corroboration of this, the white men did do certain things that
could only have been ritual ceremonies:

T H E R O O T S O F R E L I G I O N 2 0 3

They build tall masts with wires attached to them; they sit
listening to small boxes that glow with light and emit
curious noises and strangled voices; they persuade the
local people to dress up in identical clothes, and march
them up and down - and it would hardly be possible to
devise a more useless occupation than that. And then the
native realizes that he has stumbled on the answer to
the mystery. It is these incomprehensible actions that
are the rituals employed by the white man to persuade the
gods to send the cargo. If the native wants the cargo, then
he too must do these things.

It is striking that similar cargo cults sprang up independently on
islands that were widely separated both geographically and
culturally. David Attenborough tells us that

Anthropologists have noted two separate outbreaks in

New Caledonia, four in the Solomons, four in Fiji, seven
in the New Hebrides, and over fifty in New Guinea, most
of them being quite independent and unconnected with
one another. The majority of these religions claim that one
particular messiah will bring the cargo when the day of
the apocalypse arrives.

The independent flowering of so many independent but similar
cults suggests some unifying features of human psychology in
general.

One famous cult on the island of Tanna in the New Hebrides

(known as Vanuatu since 1980) is still extant. It is centred on a
messianic figure called John Frum. References to John Frum in
official government records go back only as far as 1940 but, even
for so recent a myth, it is not known for certain whether he ever
existed as a real man. One legend described him as a little man with
a high-pitched voice and bleached hair, wearing a coat with shining
buttons. He made strange prophecies, and he went out of his way
to turn the people against the missionaries. Eventually he returned
to the ancestors, after promising a triumphal second coming, bear-
ing bountiful cargo. His apocalyptic vision included a 'great

204 T H E G O D D E I.. U S 1 O N
cataclysm; the mountains would fall flat and the valleys would be
filled;* old people would regain their youth and sickness would
vanish; the white people would be expelled from the island never to
return; and cargo would arrive in great quantity so that everybody
would have as much as he wanted'.

Most worryingly for the government, John Frum also
prophesied that, on his second coming, he would bring a new
coinage, stamped with the image of a coconut. The people must
therefore get rid of all their money of the white man's currency. In

1941 this led to a wild spending spree; the people stopped working
and the island's economy was seriously damaged. The colonial
administrators arrested the ringleaders but nothing that they could
do would kill the cult, and the mission churches and schools
became deserted.

A little later, a new doctrine grew up that John Frum was King
of America. Providentially, American troops arrived in the New

Hebrides around this time and, wonder of wonders, they included
black men who were not poor like the islanders but
as richly endowed with cargo as the white soldiers. Wild
excitement overwhelmed Tanna. The day of the
apocalypse was imminent. It seemed that everyone was
preparing for the arrival of John Frum. One of the leaders
said that John Frum would be coming from America by
aeroplane and hundreds of men began to clear the bush in
the centre of the island so that the plane might have an
airstrip on which to land.

The airstrip had a bamboo control tower with 'air traffic
controllers' wearing dummy headphones made of wood. There
were dummy planes on the 'runway' to act as decoys, designed to
lure down John Frum's plane.

In the 1950s, the young David Attenborough sailed to Tanna
with a cameraman, Geoffrey Mulligan, to investigate the cult of

John Frum. They found plenty of evidence of the religion and were
eventually introduced to its high priest, a man called Nambas.

* Compare Isaiah 40: 4: 'Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and
hill shall be made low.' This similarity doesn't necessarily indicate any fundamen-
tal feature of the human psyche, or Jungian 'collective unconscious'. These islands
had long been infested with missionaries.

T H E R O O T S O F R E L J G 1 O N 205

Nambas referred to his messiah familiarly as John, and claimed to
speak regularly to him, by 'radio'. This ('radio belong John') con-
sisted of an old woman with an electric wire around her waist who
would fall into a trance and talk gibberish, which Nambas inter-
preted as the words of John Frum. Nambas claimed to have known
in advance that Attenborough was coming to see him, because John

Frum had told him on the 'radio'. Attenborough asked to see the

'radio' but was (understandably) refused. He changed the subject
and asked whether Nambas had seen John Frum:

Nambas nodded vigorously. 'Me see him plenty time.'

'What does he look like?'

Nambas jabbed his finger at me. "E look like you. 'E
got white face. 'E tall man. 'E live 'long South America.'

This detail contradicts the legend referred to above that John Frum
was a short man. Such is the way with evolving legends.

It is believed that the day of John Frum's return will be 15

February, but the year is unknown. Every year on 15 February his
followers assemble for a religious ceremony to welcome him. So far
he has not returned, but they are not downhearted. David

Attenborough said to one cult devotee, called Sam:

'But, Sam, it is nineteen years since John say that the cargo
will come. He promise and he promise, but still the cargo
does not come. Isn't nineteen years a long time to wait?'

Sam lifted his eyes from the ground and looked at me.

'If you can wait two thousand years for Jesus Christ to
come an' 'e no come, then I can wait more than nineteen
years for John.'

Robert Buckman's book Can We Be Good without God? quotes
the same admirable retort by a John Frum disciple, this time to a

Canadian journalist some forty years after David Attenborough's
encounter.

The Queen and Prince Philip visited the area in 1974, and the

Prince subsequently became deified in a rerun of a John-Frum-type
cult (once again, note how rapidly the details in religious evolution

206 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
can change). The Prince is a handsome man who would have cut an
imposing figure in his white naval uniform and plumed helmet, and
it is perhaps not surprising that he, rather than the Queen, was
elevated in this way, quite apart from the fact that the culture of the
islanders made it difficult for them to accept a female deity.

I don't want to make too much of the cargo cults of the South

Pacific. But they do provide a fascinating contemporary model for
the way religions spring up from almost nothing. In particular, they
suggest four lessons about the origin of religions generally, and I'll
set them out briefly here. First is the amazing speed with which a
cult can spring up. Second is the speed with which the origination
process covers its tracks. John Frum, if he existed at all, did so
within living memory. Yet, even for so recent a possibility, it is not
certain whether he lived at all. The third lesson springs from the
independent emergence of similar cults on different islands. The
systematic study of these similarities can tell us something about
human psychology and its susceptibility to religion. Fourth, the
cargo cults are similar, not just to each other but to older religions.

Christianity and other ancient religions that have spread worldwide
presumably began as local cults like that of John Frum. Indeed,
scholars such as Geza Vermes, Professor of Jewish Studies at

Oxford University, have suggested that Jesus was one of many such
charismatic figures who emerged in Palestine around his time, sur-
rounded by similar legends. Most of those cults died away. The one
that survived, on this view, is the one that we encounter today. And,
as the centuries go by, it has been honed by further evolution

(memetic selection, if you like that way of putting it; not if you
don't) into the sophisticated system - or rather diverging sets of
descendant systems - that dominate large parts of the world today.

The deaths of charismatic modern figures such as Haile Selassie,

Elvis Presley and Princess Diana offer other opportunities to study
the rapid rise of cults and their subsequent memetic evolution.

That is all I want to say about the roots of religion itself, apart
from a brief reprise in Chapter 10 when I discuss the 'imaginary
friend' phenomenon of childhood under the heading of the psycho-
logical 'needs' that religion fulfils.

Morality is often thought to have its roots in religion, and in the
next chapter I want to question this view. I shall argue that the

T H E R O O T S O F R E L 1 G I O N 207
origin of morality can itself be the subject of a Darwinian question.

Just as we asked: What is the Darwinian survival value of religion?,
so we can ask the same question of morality. Morality, indeed,
probably predated religion. Just as with religion we drew back from
the question and rephrased it, so with morality we shall find that it
is best seen as a by-product of something else.

CHAPTER 6

The roots of
morality: why are
we good?

Strange is our situation here on Earth. Each of us comes for a
short visit, not knowing why, yet sometimes seeming to divine a
purpose. From the standpoint of daily life, however, there is one
thing we do know: that man is here for the sake of other men -
above all for those upon whose smiles and well-being our own
happiness depends.

ALBERT EINSTEIN

T H E R O O T S O F M O R A L I T Y : W H Y A R E W E G O O D ? 2 1 1

Many religious people find it hard to imagine how, without
religion, one can be good, or would even want to be good. I shall
discuss such questions in this chapter. But the doubts go further,
and drive some religious people to paroxysms of hatred against
those who don't share their faith. This is important, because moral
considerations lie hidden behind religious attitudes to other topics
that have no real link with morality. A great deal of the opposition
to the teaching of evolution has no connection with evolution itself,
or with anything scientific, but is spurred on by moral outrage. This
ranges from the naive 'If you teach children that they evolved from
monkeys, then they will act like monkeys' to the more sophisticated
underlying motivation for the whole 'wedge' strategy of 'intelligent
design', as it is mercilessly laid bare by Barbara Forrest and Paul

Gross in Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent

Design.

I receive a large number of letters from readers of my books,*
most of them enthusiastically friendly, some of them helpfully crit-
ical, a few nasty or even vicious. And the nastiest of all, I am sorry
to report, are almost invariably motivated by religion. Such
unchristian abuse is commonly experienced by those who are per-
ceived as enemies of Christianity. Here, for example is a letter,
posted on the Internet and addressed to Brian Flemming, author
and director of The God Who Wasn't There,S6 a sincere and mov-
ing film advocating atheism. Titled 'Burn while we laugh' and dated

21 December 2005, the letter to Flemming reads as follows:

You've definitely got some nerve. I'd love to take a knife,
gut you fools, and scream with joy as your insides spill out
in front of you. You are attempting to ignite a holy war in
which some day I, and others like me, may have the
pleasure of taking action like the above mentioned.

The writer at this point seems to come to a belated recognition that
his language is not very Christian, for he goes on, more charitably:

However, GOD teaches us not to seek vengeance, but to
pray for those like you all.

* More than I can hope adequately to reply to, for which I apologize.

2 1 2 T H E G O D D E L U S I G N

His charity is short-lived, however:

I'll get comfort in knowing that the punishment GOD will
bring to you will be 1000 times worse than anything I can
inflict. The best part is that you WILL suffer for eternity
for these sins that you're completely ignorant about. The

Wrath of GOD will show no mercy. For your sake, I hope
the truth is revealed to you before the knife connects with
your flesh. Merry CHRISTMAS!!!

PS You people really don't have a clue as to what is in
store for you . . . I thank GOD I'm not you.

I find it genuinely puzzling that a mere difference of theological
opinion can generate such venom. Here's a sample (original spelling
preserved) from the postbag of the Editor of the magazine

Freethought Today, published by the Freedom from Religion

Foundation (FFRF), which campaigns peacefully against the under-
mining of the constitutional separation of church and state:

Hello, cheese-eating scumbags. Their are way more of us

Christians than you losers. Their is NO separation of
church and state and you heathens will lose . . .

What is it with cheese? American friends have suggested to me a
connection with the notoriously liberal state of Wisconsin - home
of the FFRF and centre of the dairy industry - but surely there must
be more to it than that? And how about those French 'cheese-eating
surrender-monkeys'? What is the semiotic iconography of cheese?

To continue:

Satan worshiping scum . . . Please die and go to hell . . . I
hope you get a painful disease like rectal cancer and die a
slow painful death, so you can meet your God, SATAN

. . . Hey dude this freedom from religion thing sux . . . So
you fags and dykes take it easy and watch where you go
cuz whenever you least expect it god will get you . . . If
you don't like this country and what it was founded on

&C for, get the fuck out of it and go straight to hell . . .

T H E R O O T S O F M O R A L ! T Y ; W H Y A R E W E G O O D ? 2 1 3

PS Fuck you, you comunist whore . . . Get your black
asses out of the U.S.A. . . . You are without excuse.

Creation is more than enough evidence of the LORD

JESUS CHRIST'S omnipotent power.

Why not Allah's omnipotent power? Or Lord Brahma's? Or even

Yahweh's?

We will not go quietly away. If in the future that requires
violence just remember you brought it on. My rifle is
loaded.

Why, I can't help wondering, is God thought to need such ferocious
defence? One might have supposed him amply capable of looking
after himself. Bear in mind, through all this, that the Editor being
abused and threatened so viciously is a gentle and charming young
woman.

Perhaps because I don't live in America, most of my hate mail
is not quite in the same league, but nor does it display to
advantage the charity for which the founder of Christianity was
notable. The following, dated May 2005, from a British medical
doctor, while it is certainly hateful, strikes me as more tormented
than nasty, and reveals how the whole issue of morality is a deep
wellspring of hostility towards atheism. After some preliminary
paragraphs excoriating evolution (and sarcastically asking
whether a 'Negro' is 'still in the process of evolving'), insulting

Darwin personally, misquoting Huxley as an anti-evolutionist, and
encouraging me to read a book (I have read it) which argues that
the world is only eight thousand years old (can he really be a
doctor?) he concludes:

Your own books, your prestige in Oxford, everything you
love in life, and have ever achieved, are an exercise in
total futility . . . Camus' question-challenge becomes
inescapable: Why don't we all commit suicide? Indeed,
your world view has that sort of effect on students and
many others . . . that we all evolved by blind chance, from
nothing, and return to nothing. Even if religion were not

214 T H E G O D D E I. U S I O N
true, it is better, much, much better, to believe a noble
myth, like Plato's, if it leads to peace of mind while we
live. But your world view leads to anxiety, drug addiction,
violence, nihilism, hedonism, Frankenstein science, and
hell on earth, and World War I I I . . . I wonder how happy
you are in your personal relationships? Divorced?

Widowed? Gay? Those like you are never happy, or they
would not try so hard to prove there is no happiness nor
meaning in anything.

The sentiment of this letter, if not its tone, is typical of many.

Darwinism, this person believes, is inherently nihilistic, teaching
that we evolved by blind chance (for the umpteenth time, natural
selection is the very opposite of a chance process) and are
annihilated when we die. As a direct consequence of such alleged
negativity, all manner of evils follow. Presumably he didn't really
mean to suggest that widowhood could follow directly from my

Darwinism, but his letter, by this point, had reached that level of
frenzied malevolence which I repeatedly recognize among my

Christian correspondents. I have devoted a whole book

(Unweaving the Rainbow) to ultimate meaning, to the poetry of
science, and to rebutting, specifically and at length, the charge of
nihilistic negativity, so I shall restrain myself here. This chapter is
about evil, and its opposite, good; about morality: where it comes
from, why we should embrace it, and whether we need religion to
do so.

DOES OUR MORAL SENSE HAVE A

DARWINIAN ORIGIN?

Several books, including Robert Hinde's Why Good is Good,

Michael Shermer's The Science of Good and Evil, Robert

Buckman's Can We Be Good Without God?, and Marc Hauser's

Moral Minds, have argued that our sense of right and wrong can be
derived from our Darwinian past. This section is my own version
of the argument.

T H H R O O T S O F M O R A L I T Y : W H Y A R E W E G O O D ? 2 1 5

On the face of it, the Darwinian idea that evolution is driven by
natural selection seems ill-suited to explain such goodness as we
possess, or our feelings of morality, decency, empathy and pity.

Natural selection can easily explain hunger, fear and sexual lust,
all of which straightforwardly contribute to our survival or the
preservation of our genes. But what about the wrenching com-
passion we feel when we see an orphaned child weeping, an old
widow in despair from loneliness, or an animal whimpering in
pain? What gives us the powerful urge to send an anonymous gift
of money or clothes to tsunami victims on the other side of the
world whom we shall never meet, and who are highly unlikely to
return the favour? Where does the Good Samaritan in us come
from? Isn't goodness incompatible with the theory of the 'selfish
gene'? No. This is a common misunderstanding of the theory - a
distressing (and, with hindsight, foreseeable) misunderstanding.* It
is necessary to put the stress on the right word. The selfish gene is
the correct emphasis, for it makes the contrast with the selfish
organism, say, or the selfish species. Let me explain.

The logic of Darwinism concludes that the unit in the hierarchy
of life which survives and passes through the filter of natural
selection will tend to be selfish. The units that survive in the world
will be the ones that succeeded in surviving at the expense of their
rivals at their own level in the hierarchy. That, precisely, is what
selfish means in this context. The question is, what is the level of
the action? The whole idea of the selfish gene, with the stress
properly applied to the last word, is that the unit of natural
selection (i.e. the unit of self-interest) is not the selfish organism,
nor the selfish group or selfish species or selfish ecosystem, but the
selfish gene. It is the gene that, in the form of information, either
survives for many generations or does not. Unlike the gene (and
arguably the meme), the organism, the group and the species are
not the right kind of entity to serve as a unit in this sense, because

* I was mortified to read in the Guardian ('Animal Instincts', 27 May 2006) that

The Selfish Gene is the favourite book of Jeff Skilling, CEO of the infamous Enron

Corporation, and that he derived inspiration of a Social Darwinist character from
it. The Guardian journalist Richard Conniff gives a good explanation of the mis-
understanding: http://money.guardian.co.uk/workweekly/story/0,,1783900,00.html.

I have tried to forestall similar misunderstandings in my new preface to the thirtieth-
anniversary edition of The Selfish Gene, just brought out by Oxford University

Press.

216 T H E G O D D E I. U S I O N
they do not make exact copies of themselves, and do not compete
in a pool of such self-replicating entities. That is precisely what
genes do, and that is the - essentially logical - justification for
singling the gene out as the unit of 'selfishness' in the special

Darwinian sense of selfish.

The most obvious way in which genes ensure their own 'selfish'

survival relative to other genes is by programming individual
organisms to be selfish. There are indeed many circumstances in
which survival of the individual organism will favour the survival
of the genes that ride inside it. But different circumstances favour
different tactics. There are circumstances - not particularly rare -
in which genes ensure their own selfish survival by influencing
organisms to behave altruistically. Those circumstances are now
fairly well understood and they fall into two main categories. A
gene that programs individual organisms to favour their genetic kin
is statistically likely to benefit copies of itself. Such a gene's
frequency can increase in the gene pool to the point where kin
altruism becomes the norm. Being good to one's own children is the
obvious example, but it is not the only one. Bees, wasps, ants,
termites and, to a lesser extent, certain vertebrates such as naked
mole rats, meerkats and acorn woodpeckers, have evolved societies
in which elder siblings care for younger siblings (with whom they
are likely to share the genes for doing the caring). In general, as my
late colleague W. D. Hamilton showed, animals tend to care for,
defend, share resources with, warn of danger, or otherwise show
altruism towards close kin because of the statistical likelihood that
kin will share copies of the same genes.

The other main type of altruism for which we have a well-
worked-out Darwinian rationale is reciprocal altruism ('You
scratch my back and I'll scratch yours'). This theory, first intro-
duced to evolutionary biology by Robert Trivers and often
expressed in the mathematical language of game theory, does not
depend upon shared genes. Indeed, it works just as well, probably
even better, between members of widely different species, when it is
often called symbiosis. The principle is the basis of all trade and
barter in humans too. The hunter needs a spear and the smith
wants meat. The asymmetry brokers a deal. The bee needs nectar
and the flower needs pollinating. Flowers can't fly so they pay bees,

T H K R O O "I S O !; M O R A M T Y : W H Y A R E \ V I: G O ( ) D ? 2 1 7
in the currency of nectar, for the hire of their wings. Birds called
honeyguides can find bees' nests but can't break into them. Honey
badgers (ratels) can break into bees' nests, but lack wings with
which to search for them. Honeyguides lead ratels (and sometimes
men) to honey by a special enticing flight, used for no other
purpose. Both sides benefit from the transaction. A crock of gold
may lie under a large stone, too heavy for its discoverer to move.

He enlists the help of others even though he then has to share the
gold, because without their help he would get none. The living
kingdoms are rich in such mutualistic relationships: buffaloes and
oxpeckers, red tubular flowers and hummingbirds, groupers and
cleaner wrasses, cows and their gut micro-organisms. Reciprocal
altruism works because of asymmetries in needs and in capacities to
meet them. That is why it works especially well between different
species: the asymmetries are greater.

In humans, IOUs and money are devices that permit delays in
the transactions. The parties to the trade don't hand over the goods
simultaneously but can hold a debt over to the future, or even trade
the debt on to others. As far as I know, no non-human animals in
the wild have any direct equivalent of money. But memory of
individual identity plays the same role more informally. Vampire
bats learn which other individuals of their social group can be relied
upon to pay their debts (in regurgitated blood) and which
individuals cheat. Natural selection favours genes that predispose
individuals, in relationships of asymmetric need and opportunity, to
give when they can, and to solicit giving when they can't. It also
favours tendencies to remember obligations, bear grudges, police
exchange relationships and punish cheats who take, but don't give
when their turn comes.

For there will always be cheats, and stable solutions to the game-
theoretic conundrums of reciprocal altruism always involve an
element of punishment of cheats. Mathematical theory allows two
broad classes of stable solution to 'games' of this kind. 'Always be
nasty' is stable in that, if everybody else is doing it, a single nice
individual cannot do better. But there is another strategy which is
also stable. ('Stable' means that, once it exceeds a critical frequency
in the population, no alternative does better.) This is the strategy,

'Start out being nice, and give others the benefit of the doubt. Then

218 T H E Ci O D I) E I. U S I O N
repay good deeds with good, but avenge bad deeds.' In game theory
language, this strategy (or family of related strategies) goes under
various names, including Tit-for-Tat, Retaliator and Reciprocator.

It is evolutionarily stable under some conditions in the sense that,
given a population dominated by reciprocators, no single nasty
individual, and no single unconditionally nice individual, will do
better. There are other, more complicated variants of Tit-for-Tat
which can in some circumstances do better.

I have mentioned kinship and reciprocation as the twin pillars of
altruism in a Darwinian world, but there are secondary structures
which rest atop those main pillars. Especially in human society,
with language and gossip, reputation is important. One individual
may have a reputation for kindness and generosity. Another
individual may have a reputation for unreliability, for cheating and
reneging on deals. Another may have a reputation for generosity
when trust has been built up, but for ruthless punishment of cheat-
ing. The unadorned theory of reciprocal altruism expects animals
of any species to base their behaviour upon unconscious
responsiveness to such traits in their fellows. In human societies we
add the power of language to spread reputations, usually in the
form of gossip. You don't need to have suffered personally from X's
failure to buy his round at the pub. You hear 'on the grapevine' that

X is a tightwad, or - to add an ironic complication to the example

- that Y is a terrible gossip. Reputation is important, and biologists
can acknowledge a Darwinian survival value in not just being a
good reciprocator but fostering a reputation as a good reciprocator
too. Matt Ridley's The Origins of Virtue, as well as being a lucid
account of the whole field of Darwinian morality, is especially good
on reputation.*

The Norwegian economist Thorstein Veblen and, in a rather
different way, the Israeli zoologist Amotz Zahavi have added a
further fascinating idea. Altruistic giving may be an advertisement
of dominance or superiority. Anthropologists know it as the

Potlatch Effect, named after the custom whereby rival chieftains of

* Reputation is not confined to humans. It has recently been shown to apply to
one of the classic cases of reciprocal altruism in animals, the symbiotic relation-
ship between small cleaner fish and their large fish clients. In an ingenious
experiment, individual cleaner wrasse, Labroides dimidiatus, that had been
observed by a would-be client to be diligent cleaners were more likely to be cho-
sen by the client than rival Labroides that had been observed neglecting to clean.

See R. Bshary and A. S. Grutter, 'Image scoring and cooperation in a cleaner fish
mutualism', Nature 4 4 1 , 22 June 2006, 975-8.

T H F , R O O T S O F M O R A L I T Y : W H Y A R E W E G O O D ? 2 1 9

Pacific north-west tribes vie with each other in duels of ruinously
generous feasts. In extreme cases, bouts of retaliatory entertaining
continue until one side is reduced to penury, leaving the winner not
much better off. Veblen's concept of 'conspicuous consumption'

strikes a chord with many observers of the modern scene. Zahavi's
contribution, unregarded by biologists for many years until
vindicated by brilliant mathematical models from the theorist Alan

Grafen, has been to provide an evolutionary version of the potlatch
idea. Zahavi studies Arabian babblers, little brown birds who live
in social groups and breed co-operatively. Like many small birds,
babblers give warning cries, and they also donate food to each
other. A standard Darwinian investigation of such altruistic acts
would look, first, for reciprocation and kinship relationships
among the birds. When a babbler feeds a companion, is it in
the expectation of being fed at a later date? Or is the recipient of the
favour a close genetic relative? Zahavi's interpretation is radically
unexpected. Dominant babblers assert their dominance by feeding
subordinates. To use the sort of anthropomorphic language Zahavi
delights in, the dominant bird is saying the equivalent of, 'Look
how superior I am to you, I can afford to give you food.' Or

'Look how superior I am, I can afford to make myself vulnerable to
hawks by sitting on a high branch, acting as a sentinel to warn the
rest of the flock feeding on the ground.' The observations of Zahavi
and his colleagues suggest that babblers actively compete for the
dangerous role of sentinel. And when a subordinate babbler
attempts to offer food to a dominant individual, the apparent
generosity is violently rebuffed. The essence of Zahavi's idea is that
advertisements of superiority are authenticated by their cost. Only
a genuinely superior individual can afford to advertise the fact by
means of a costly gift. Individuals buy success, for example in
attracting mates, through costly demonstrations of superiority,
including ostentatious generosity and public-spirited risk-taking.

We now have four good Darwinian reasons for individuals to be
altruistic, generous or 'moral' towards each other. First, there is the
special case of genetic kinship. Second, there is reciprocation:

the repayment of favours given, and the giving of favours in

'anticipation' of payback. Following on from this there is, third, the

Darwinian benefit of acquiring a reputation for generosity and

220 i H r o o i> i) hi (i s i o N
kindness. And fourth, if Zahavi is right, there is the particular
additional benefit of conspicuous generosity as a way of buying
unfakeably authentic advertising.

Through most of our prehistory, humans lived under conditions
that would have strongly favoured the evolution of all four kinds of
altruism. We lived in villages, or earlier in discrete roving bands like
baboons, partially isolated from neighbouring bands or villages.

Most of your fellow band members would have been kin, more
closely related to you than members of other bands - plenty of
opportunities for kin altruism to evolve. And, whether kin or not,
you would tend to meet the same individuals again and again
throughout your life - ideal conditions for the evolution of
reciprocal altruism. Those are also the ideal conditions for building
a reputation for altruism, and the very same ideal conditions for
advertising conspicuous generosity. By any or all of the four routes,
genetic tendencies towards altruism would have been favoured in
early humans. It is easy to see why our prehistoric ancestors would
have been good to their own in-group but bad - to the point of
xenophobia - towards other groups. But why - now that most of
us live in big cities where we are no longer surrounded by kin, and
where every day we meet individuals whom we are never going to
meet again — why are we still so good to each other, even some-
times to others who might be thought to belong to an out-group?

It is important not to mis-state the reach of natural selection.

Selection does not favour the evolution of a cognitive awareness of
what is good for your genes. That awareness had to wait for the
twentieth century to reach a cognitive level, and even now full
understanding is confined to a minority of scientific specialists.

What natural selection favours is rules of thumb, which work in
practice to promote the genes that built them. Rules of thumb, by
their nature, sometimes misfire. In a bird's brain, the rule 'Look
after small squawking things in your nest, and drop food into their
red gapes' typically has the effect of preserving the genes that built
the rule, because the squawking, gaping objects in an adult bird's
nest are normally its own offspring. The rule misfires if another
baby bird somehow gets into the nest, a circumstance that is
positively engineered by cuckoos. Could it be that our Good

Samaritan urges are misfirings, analogous to the misfiring of a reed

\ I i ' ) K A I I M : \ V 1 ! \ A i d S I t , t ' ' i i i ) '• 221
warbler's parental instincts when it works itself to the bone for a
young cuckoo? An even closer analogy is the human urge to adopt
a child. I must rush to add that 'misfiring' is intended only in a
strictly Darwinian sense. It carries no suggestion of the pejorative.

The 'mistake' or 'by-product' idea, which I am espousing, works
like this. Natural selection, in ancestral times when we lived in
small and stable bands like baboons, programmed into our brains
altruistic urges, alongside sexual urges, hunger urges, xenophobic
urges and so on. An intelligent couple can read their Darwin and
know that the ultimate reason for their sexual urges is procreation.

They know that the woman cannot conceive because she is on the
pill. Yet they find that their sexual desire is in no way diminished
by the knowledge. Sexual desire is sexual desire and its force, in an
individual's psychology, is independent of the ultimate Darwinian
pressure that drove it. It is a strong urge which exists independently
of its ultimate rationale.

I am suggesting that the same is true of the urge to kindness - to
altruism, to generosity, to empathy, to pity. In ancestral times, we
had the opportunity to be altruistic only towards close kin and
potential reciprocators. Nowadays that restriction is no longer
there, but the rule of thumb persists. Why would it not? It is just like
sexual desire. We can no more help ourselves feeling pity when we see
a weeping unfortunate (who is unrelated and unable to reciprocate)

than we can help ourselves feeling lust for a member of the opposite
sex (who may be infertile or otherwise unable to reproduce). Both
are misfirings, Darwinian mistakes: blessed, precious mistakes.

Do not, for one moment, think of such Darwinizing as demeaning
or reductive of the noble emotions of compassion and generosity.

Nor of sexual desire. Sexual desire, when channelled through the
conduits of linguistic culture, emerges as great poetry and drama:

John Donne's love poems, say, or Romeo and Juliet. And of course
the same thing happens with the misfired redirection of kin- and
reciprocation-based compassion. Mercy to a debtor is, when seen
out of context, as un-Darwinian as adopting someone else's child:

The quality of mercy is not strained.

It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven

Upon the place beneath.

222 i 11 i; <• ^ 1> I ) I-' I. U S I C> \

Sexual lust is the driving force behind a large proportion of
human ambition and struggle, and much of it constitutes a mis-
firing. There is no reason why the same should not be true of the
lust to be generous and compassionate, if this is the misfired
consequence of ancestral village life. The best way for natural
selection to build in both kinds of lust in ancestral times was to
install rules of thumb in the brain. Those rules still influence us
today, even where circumstances make them inappropriate to their
original functions.

Such rules of thumb influence us still, not in a Calvinistically
deterministic way but filtered through the civilizing influences of
literature and custom, law and tradition - and, of course, religion.

Just as the primitive brain rule of sexual lust passes through the
filter of civilization to emerge in the love scenes of Romeo and

Juliet, so primitive brain rules of us-versus-them vendetta emerge in
the form of the running battles between Capulets and Montagues;
while primitive brain rules of altruism and empathy end up in the
misfiring that cheers us in the chastened reconciliation of

Shakespeare's final scene.

A CASE STUDY IN THE ROOTS OF MORALITY

If our moral sense, like our sexual desire, is indeed rooted deep in
our Darwinian past, predating religion, we should expect that
research on the human mind would reveal some moral universals,
crossing geographical and cultural barriers, and also, crucially,
religious barriers. The Harvard biologist Marc Hauser, in his book

Moral Minds: How Nature Designed our Universal Sense of Right
and Wrong, has enlarged upon a fruitful line of thought
experiments originally suggested by moral philosophers. Hauser's
study will serve the additional purpose of introducing the way
moral philosophers think. A hypothetical moral dilemma is posed,
and the difficulty we experience in answering it tells us something
about our sense of right and wrong. Where Hauser goes beyond the
philosophers is that he actually does statistical surveys and psycho-
logical experiments, using questionnaires on the Internet, for

R (> O I S (i I Y1 O l< A I I I "I : W I ! Y A K !•' V\ i C i K M ) ? 2 2 3
example, to investigate the moral sense of real people. From the
present point of view, the interesting thing is that most people come
to the same decisions when faced with these dilemmas, and their
agreement over the decisions themselves is stronger than their
ability to articulate their reasons. This is what we should expect if
we have a moral sense which is built into our brains, like our sexual
instinct or our fear of heights or, as Hauser himself prefers to say,
like our capacity for language (the details vary from culture to
culture, but the underlying deep structure of grammar is universal).

As we shall see, the way people respond to these moral tests, and
their inability to articulate their reasons, seems largely independent
of their religious beliefs or lack of them. The message of Hauser's
book, to anticipate it in his own words, is this: 'Driving our moral
judgments is a universal moral grammar, a faculty of the mind that
evolved over millions of years to include a set of principles for
building a range of possible moral systems. As with language, the
principles that make up our moral grammar fly beneath the radar
of our awareness.'

Typical of Hauser's moral dilemmas are variations on the theme
of a runaway truck or 'trolley' on a railway line which threatens to
kill a number of people. The simplest story imagines a person,

Denise, standing by a set of points and in a position to divert the
trolley onto a siding, thereby saving the lives of five people trapped
on the main line ahead. Unfortunately there is a man trapped on the
siding. But since he is only one, outnumbered by the five people
trapped on the main track, most people agree that it is morally
permissible, if not obligatory, for Denise to throw the switch and
save the five by killing the one. We ignore hypothetical possibilities
such as that the one man on the siding might be Beethoven, or a
close friend.

Elaborations of the thought experiment present a series of
increasingly teasing moral conundrums. What if the trolley can be
stopped by dropping a large weight in its path from a bridge over-
head? That's easy: obviously we must drop the weight. But what if
the only large weight available is a very fat man sitting on the
bridge, admiring the sunset? Almost everybody agrees that it is
immoral to push the fat man off the bridge, even though, from one
point of view, the dilemma might seem parallel to Denise's, where

224 i i l l < i o i> r- i i i: s i o .\
throwing the switch kills one to save five. Most of us have a strong
intuition that there is a crucial difference between the two cases,
though we may not be able to articulate what it is.

Pushing the fat man off the bridge is reminiscent of another
dilemma considered by Hauser. Five patients in a hospital are
dying, each with a different organ failing. Each would be saved if a
donor could be found for their particular faulty organ, but none is
available. Then the surgeon notices that there is a healthy man in
the waiting-room, all five of whose organs are in good working
order and suitable for transplanting. In this case, almost nobody
can be found who is prepared to say that the moral act is to kill the
one to save the five.

As with the fat man on the bridge, the intuition that most of us
share is that an innocent bystander should not suddenly be dragged
into a bad situation and used for the sake of others without his
consent. Immanuel Kant famously articulated the principle that a
rational being should never be used as merely an unconsenting
means to an end, even the end of benefiting others. This seems to
provide the crucial difference between the case of the fat man on the
bridge (or the man in the hospital waiting-room) and the man on

Denise's siding. The fat man on the bridge is being positively used
as the means to stop the runaway trolley. This clearly violates the

Kantian principle. The person on the siding is not being used to
save the lives of the five people on the line. It is the siding that is
being used, and he just has the bad luck to be standing on it. But,
when you put the distinction like that, why does it satisfy us? For

Kant, it was a moral absolute. For Hauser it is built into us by our
evolution.

The hypothetical situations involving the runaway trolley
become increasingly ingenious, and the moral dilemmas corres-
pondingly tortuous. Hauser contrasts the dilemmas faced by
hypothetical individuals called Ned and Oscar. Ned is standing by
the railway track. Unlike Denise, who could divert the trolley onto
a siding, Ned's switch diverts it onto a side loop which joins the
main track again just before the five people. Simply switching
the points doesn't help: the trolley will plough into the five anyway
when the diversion rejoins the main track. However, as it happens,
there is an extremely fat man on the diversionary track who is

R O t ' i l s O F M d l t A I I ' I ' V : W H Y A t t I W 1 - < , 0 O l > ? 2 2 5
heavy enough to stop the trolley. Should Ned change the points and
divert the train? Most people's intuition is that he should not. But
what is the difference between Ned's dilemma, and Denise's?

Presumably people are intuitively applying Kant's principle. Denise
diverts the trolley from ploughing into the five people, and the
unfortunate casualty on the siding is 'collateral damage', to use
the charmingly Rumsfeldian phrase. He is not being used by Denise
to save the others. Ned is actually using the fat man to stop the
trolley, and most people (perhaps unthinkingly), along with Kant

(thinking it out in great detail), see this as a crucial difference.

The difference is brought out again by the dilemma of Oscar.

Oscar's situation is identical to Ned's, except that there is a large
iron weight on the diversionary loop of track, heavy enough to stop
the trolley. Clearly Oscar should have no problem deciding to pull
the points and divert the trolley. Except that there happens to be a
hiker walking in front of the iron weight. He will certainly be killed
if Oscar pulls the switch, just as surely as Ned's fat man. The
difference is that Oscar's hiker is not being used to stop the trolley:

he is collateral damage, as in Denise's dilemma. Like Hauser, and
like most of Hauser's experimental subjects, I feel that Oscar is
permitted to throw the switch but Ned is not. But I also find it quite
hard to justify my intuition. Hauser's point is that such moral
intuitions are often not well thought out but that we feel them
strongly anyway, because of our evolutionary heritage.

In an intriguing venture into anthropology, Hauser and his
colleagues adapted their moral experiments to the Kuna, a small

Central American tribe with little contact with Westerners and no
formal religion. The researchers changed the 'trolley on a line'

thought experiment to locally suitable equivalents, such as
crocodiles swimming towards canoes. With corresponding minor
differences, the Kuna show the same moral judgements as the rest
of us.

Of particular interest for this book, Hauser also wondered
whether religious people differ from atheists in their moral
intuitions. Surely, if we get our morality from religion, they should
differ. But it seems that they don't. Hauser, working with the moral
philosopher Peter Singer,87 focused on three hypothetical dilemmas
and compared the verdicts of atheists with those of religious people.

226 1 II K (< O l> I) T i 1 s i

In each case, the subjects were asked to choose whether a
hypothetical action is morally 'obligatory', 'permissible' or

'forbidden'. The three dilemmas were:

1 Denise's dilemma. Ninety per cent of people said it was
permissible to divert the trolley, killing the one to save the five.

2 You see a child drowning in a pond and there is no other help
in sight. You can save the child, but your trousers will be
ruined in the process. Ninety-seven per cent agreed that you
should save the child (amazingly, 3 per cent apparently would
prefer to save their trousers).

3 The organ transplant dilemma described above. Ninety-seven
per cent of subjects agreed that it is morally forbidden to seize
the healthy person in the waiting-room and kill him for his
organs, thereby saving five other people.

The main conclusion of Hauser and Singer's study was that there
is no statistically significant difference between atheists and religious
believers in making these judgements. This seems compatible with
the view, which I and many others hold, that we do not need God
in order to be good - or evil.

IF THERE IS NO G O D , WHY BE GOOD?

Posed like that, the question sounds positively ignoble. When a
religious person puts it to me in this way (and many of them do),
my immediate temptation is to issue the following challenge: 'Do
you really mean to tell me the only reason you try to be good is to
gain God's approval and reward, or to avoid his disapproval and
punishment? That's not morality, that's just sucking up, apple-
polishing, looking over your shoulder at the great surveillance
camera in the sky, or the still small wiretap inside your head,
monitoring your every move, even your every base thought.' As

Einstein said, 'If people are good only because they fear punish-
ment, and hope for reward, then we are a sorry lot indeed.' Michael

K O O I S O ! M O R A I . I H : « • I I \ \ K Y V M . < ; < M > 1 > ? 2 2 7

Shermer, in The Science of Good and Evil, calls it a debate stopper.

If you agree that, in the absence of God, you would 'commit
robbery, rape, and murder', you reveal yourself as an immoral
person, 'and we would be well advised to steer a wide course
around you'. If, on the other hand, you admit that you would con-
tinue to be a good person even when not under divine surveillance,
you have fatally undermined your claim that God is necessary for
us to be good. I suspect that quite a lot of religious people do think
religion is what motivates them to be good, especially if they belong
to one of those faiths that systematically exploits personal guilt.

It seems to me to require quite a low self-regard to think that,
should belief in God suddenly vanish from the world, we would all
become callous and selfish hedonists, with no kindness, no charity,
no generosity, nothing that would deserve the name of goodness. It
is widely believed that Dostoevsky was of that opinion, presumably
because of some remarks he put into the mouth of Ivan Karamazov:

[Ivanj solemnly observed that there was absolutely no law
of nature to make man love humanity, and that if love did
exist and had existed at all in the world up to now, then it
was not by virtue of the natural law, but entirely because
man believed in his own immortality. He added as an
aside that it was precisely that which constituted the
natural law, namely, that once man's faith in his own
immortality was destroyed, not only would his capacity
for love be exhausted, but so would the vital forces that
sustained life on this earth. And furthermore, nothing
would be immoral then, everything would be permitted,
even anthropophagy. And finally, as though all this were
not enough, he declared that for every individual, such as
you and me, for example, who does not believe either in

God or in his own immortality, the natural law is bound
immediately to become the complete opposite of the
religion-based law that preceded it, and that egoism, even
extending to the perpetration of crime, would not only be
permissible but would be recognized as the essential, the
most rational, and even the noblest raison d'etre of
the human condition.88

2 2 8 ' I I i ( . O l ! 1) K 1 U S I '•)

Perhaps naively, I have inclined towards a less cynical view of
human nature than Ivan Karamazov. Do we really need policing -
whether by God or by each other - in order to stop us from
behaving in a selfish and criminal manner? I dearly want to believe
that I do not need such surveillance - and nor, dear reader, do you.

On the other hand, just to weaken our confidence, listen to Steven

Pinker's disillusioning experience of a police strike in Montreal,
which he describes in The Blank Slate:

As a young teenager in proudly peaceable Canada during
the romantic 1960s, I was a true believer in Bakunin's
anarchism. I laughed off my parents' argument that if the
government ever laid down its arms all hell would break
loose. Our competing predictions were put to the test at

8:00 A.M. on October 17, 1969, when the Montreal
police went on strike. By 11:20 A.M. the first bank was
robbed. By noon most downtown stores had closed
because of looting. Within a few more hours, taxi drivers
burned down the garage of a limousine service that com-
peted with them for airport customers, a rooftop sniper
killed a provincial police officer, rioters broke into several
hotels and restaurants, and a doctor slew a burglar in his
suburban home. By the end of the day, six banks had been
robbed, a hundred shops had been looted, twelve fires had
been set, forty carloads of storefront glass had been
broken, and three million dollars in property damage had
been inflicted, before city authorities had to call in the
army and, of course, the Mounties to restore order. This
decisive empirical test left my politics in tatters . . .

Perhaps I, too, am a Pollyanna to believe that people would remain
good when unobserved and unpoliced by God. On the other hand,
the majority of the population of Montreal presumably believed in

God. Why didn't the fear of God restrain them when earthly police-
men were temporarily removed from the scene? Wasn't the

Montreal strike a pretty good natural experiment to test the
hypothesis that belief in God makes us good? Or did the cynic H.

L. Mencken get it right when he tartly observed: 'People say

K O O I S O I V! (> R A 1 1 T Y : W H V A R 1 W 1'. (, O (> 1) ? 2 2 9
we need religion when what they really mean is we need police.'

Obviously, not everybody in Montreal behaved badly as soon as
the police were off the scene. It would be interesting to know
whether there was any statistical tendency, however slight, for
religious believers to loot and destroy less than unbelievers. My
uninformed prediction would have been opposite. It is often
cynically said that there are no atheists in foxholes. I'm inclined to
suspect (with some evidence, although it may be simplistic to draw
conclusions from it) that there are very few atheists in prisons. I am
not necessarily claiming that atheism increases morality, although
humanism - the ethical system that often goes with atheism -
probably does. Another good possibility is that atheism is
correlated with some third factor, such as higher education,
intelligence or reflectiveness, which might counteract criminal
impulses. Such research evidence as there is certainly doesn't
support the common view that religiosity is positively correlated
with morality. Correlational evidence is never conclusive, but the
following data, described by Sam Harris in his Letter to a Christian

Nation, are nevertheless striking.

While political party affiliation in the United States is not
a perfect indicator of religiosity, it is no secret that the 'red

[Republican| states' are primarily red due to the over-
whelming political influence of conservative Christians. If
there were a strong correlation between Christian conser-
vatism and societal health, we might expect to see some
sign of it in red-state America. We don't. Of the twenty-
five cities with the lowest rates of violent crime, 62
percent are in 'blue' [Democrat] states, and 38 percent are
in 'red' [Republican] states. Of the twenty-five most dan-
gerous cities, 76 percent are in red states, and 24 percent
are in blue states. In fact, three of the five most dangerous
cities in the U.S. are in the pious state of Texas. The twelve
states with the highest rates of burglary are red. Twenty-
four of the twenty-nine states with the highest rates of
theft are red. Of the twenty-two states with the highest
rates of murder, seventeen are red.*

* Note that these colour conventions in America are exactly the opposite of those
in Britain, where blue is the colour of the Conservative Party, and red, as in the
rest of the world, is the colour traditionally associated with the political left.

2 3 0 M i l - ( . O P I") r I. I; '•> I O N

Systematic research if anything tends to support such correlational
data. Dan Dennett, in Breaking the Spell, sardonically comments,
not on Harris's book in particular, but on such studies generally:

Needless to say, these results strike so hard at the standard
claims of greater moral virtue among the religious that
there has been a considerable surge of further research
initiated by religious organizations attempting to refute
them . . . one thing we can be sure of is that if there is a
significant positive relationship between moral behaviour
and religious affiliation, practice, or belief, it will soon be
discovered, since so many religious organizations are
eager to confirm their traditional beliefs about this
scientifically. (They are quite impressed with the truth-
finding power of science when it supports what they
already believe.) Every month that passes without such a
demonstration underlines the suspicion that it just isn't so.

Most thoughtful people would agree that morality in the
absence of policing is somehow more truly moral than the kind of
false morality that vanishes as soon as the police go on strike or the
spy camera is switched off, whether the spy camera is a real one
monitored in the police station or an imaginary one in heaven. But
it is perhaps unfair to interpret the question 'If there is no God,
why bother to be good?' in such a cynical way.* A religious thinker
could offer a more genuinely moral interpretation, along the lines
of the following statement from an imaginary apologist. 'If you
don't believe in God, you don't believe there are any absolute
standards of morality. With the best will in the world you may
intend to be a good person, but how do you decide what is good
and what is bad? Only religion can ultimately provide your
standards of good and evil. Without religion you have to make it
up as you go along. That would be morality without a rule book:

morality flying by the seat of its pants. If morality is merely a
matter of choice, Hitler could claim to be moral by his own
eugenically inspired standards, and all the atheist can do is make a
personal choice to live by different lights. The Christian, the Jew or

* H. L. Mencken, again with characteristic cynicism, defined conscience as the
inner voice that warns us that someone may be looking.

K O O I \ < ) i VI O K A I . i l 1 > : W i l l A K I. V>, ( < , O (.) I» .- 2 3 1
the Muslim, by contrast, can claim that evil has an absolute mean-
ing, true for all time and in all places, according to which Hitler
was absolutely evil.'

Even if it were true that we need God to be moral, it would of
course not make God's existence more likely, merely more desirable

(many people cannot tell the difference). But that is not the issue
here. My imaginary religious apologist has no need to admit that
sucking up to God is the religious motive for doing good. Rather,
his claim is that, wherever the motive to be good comes from, with-
out God there would be no standard for deciding what is good. We
could each make up our own definition of the good, and behave
accordingly. Moral principles that are based only upon religion (as
opposed to, say, the 'golden rule', which is often associated with
religions but can be derived from elsewhere) may be called
absolutist. Good is good and bad is bad, and we don't mess around
deciding particular cases by whether, for example, somebody
suffers. My religious apologist would claim that only religion can
provide a basis for deciding what is good.

Some philosophers, notably Kant, have tried to derive absolute
morals from non-religious sources. Though a religious man himself,
as was almost inevitable in his time/' Kant tried to base a morality
on duty for duty's sake, rather than for God's. His famous
categorical imperative enjoins us to 'act only on that maxim
whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a
universal law'. This works tidily for the example of telling lies.

Imagine a world in which people told lies as a matter of principle,
where lying was regarded as a good and moral thing to do. In such
a world, lying itself would cease to have any meaning. Lying needs
a presumption of truth for its very definition. If a moral principle is
something we should wish everybody to follow, lying cannot be a
moral principle because the principle itself would break down in
meaninglessness. Lying, as a rule for life, is inherently unstable.

More generally, selfishness, or free-riding parasitism on the good-
will of others, may work for me as a lone selfish individual and give
me personal satisfaction. But I cannot wish that everybody would
adopt selfish parasitism as a moral principle, if only because then I
would have nobody to parasitize.

* This is the standard interpretation of Kant's views. However, the noted philosopher

A. C. Grayling has plausibly argued (New Humanist, July-Aug. 2006) that, although

Kant publicly went along with the religious conventions of his time, he was really
an atheist.

232 i 11 r <; o

The Kantian imperative seems to work for truth-telling and some
other cases. It is not so easy to see how to broaden it to morality
generally. Kant notwithstanding, it is tempting to agree with my
hypothetical apologist that absolutist morals are usually driven by
religion. Is it always wrong to put a terminally ill patient out of her
misery at her own request? Is it always wrong to make love to a
member of your own sex? Is it always wrong to kill an embryo?

There are those who believe so, and their grounds are absolute. They
brook no argument or debate. Anybody who disagrees deserves to
be shot: metaphorically of course, not literally - except in the case
of some doctors in American abortion clinics (see next chapter).

Fortunately, however, morals do not have to be absolute.

Moral philosophers are the professionals when it comes to
thinking about right and wrong. As Robert Hinde succinctly put it,
they agree that 'moral precepts, while not necessarily constructed
by reason, should be defensible by reason'.89 They classify them-
selves in many ways, but in modern terminology the major divide
is between 'deontologists' (such as Kant) and 'consequentialists'

(including 'utilitarians' such as Jeremy Bentham, 1748-1832).

Deontology is a fancy name for the belief that morality consists
in the obeying of rules. It is literally the science of duty, from
the Greek for 'that which is binding'. Deontology is not quite the
same thing as moral absolutism, but for most purposes in a
book about religion there is no need to dwell on the distinction.

Absolutists believe there are absolutes of right and wrong,
imperatives whose Tightness makes no reference to their
consequences. Consequentialists more pragmatically hold that the
morality of an action should be judged by its consequences. One
version of consequentialism is utilitarianism, the philosophy
associated with Bentham, his friend James Mill (1773-1836) and

Mill's son John Stuart Mill (1806-73). Utilitarianism is often
summed up in Bentham's unfortunately imprecise catchphrase: 'the
greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of
morals and legislation'.

Not all absolutism is derived from religion. Nevertheless, it is
pretty hard to defend absolutist morals on grounds other than
religious ones. The only competitor I can think of is patriotism,
especially in times of war. As the distinguished Spanish film director

H O I s o r M (.> R A ! I ! Y : \\ I I "'<. \ 1 M ' \\ i ' . '• ' '• s I > : 2 3 3

Luis Bunuel said, 'God and Country are an unbeatable team; they
break all records for oppression and bloodshed.' Recruiting officers
rely heavily on their victims' sense of patriotic duty. In the First

World War, women handed out white feathers to young men not in
uniform.

Oh, we don't want to lose you, but we think you ought to go,

For your King and your country both need you so.

People despised conscientious objectors, even those of the enemy
country, because patriotism was held to be an absolute virtue. It is
hard to get much more absolute than the 'My country right or
wrong' of the professional soldier, for the slogan commits you to
kill whomever the politicians of some future date might choose
to call enemies. Consequentialist reasoning may influence the polit-
ical decision to go to war but, once war is declared, absolutist
patriotism takes over with a force and a power not otherwise seen
outside religion. A soldier who allows his own thoughts of
consequentialist morality to persuade him not to go over the top
would likely find himself court-martialled and even executed.

The springboard for this discussion of moral philosophy was a
hypothetical religious claim that, without a God, morals are
relative and arbitrary. Kant and. other sophisticated moral
philosophers apart, and with due recognition given to patriotic
fervour, the preferred source of absolute morality is usually a holy
book of some kind, interpreted as having an authority far beyond
its history's capacity to justify. Indeed, adherents of scriptural
authority show distressingly little curiosity about the (normally
highly dubious) historical origins of their holy books. The next
chapter will demonstrate that, in any case, people who claim to
derive their morals from scripture do not really do so in practice.

And a very good thing too, as they themselves, on reflection, should
agree.

CHAPTER 7

The 'Good' Book
and the changing
moral Zeitgeist

Politics has slain its thousands, but religion has slain
its tens of thousands.

SEAN O'CASEY

O O K \ \ i> ' M i l Xi I ' H ,\ j / J. ; i (, • I \ I 237

There are two ways in which scripture might be a source of morals
or rules for living. One is by direct instruction, for example through
the Ten Commandments, which are the subject of such bitter
contention in the culture wars of America's boondocks. The other
is by example: God, or some other biblical character, might serve as

- to use the contemporary jargon - a role model. Both scriptural
routes, if followed through religiously (the adverb is used in its
metaphoric sense but with an eye to its origin), encourage a system
of morals which any civilized modern person, whether religious or
not, would find - I can put it no more gently - obnoxious.

To be fair, much of the Bible is not systematically evil but just
plain weird, as you would expect of a chaotically cobbled-together
anthology of disjointed documents, composed, revised, translated,
distorted and 'improved' by hundreds of anonymous authors,
editors and copyists, unknown to us and mostly unknown to each
other, spanning nine centuries.90 This may explain some of the sheer
strangeness of the Bible. But unfortunately it is this same weird
volume that religious zealots hold up to us as the inerrant source of
our morals and rules for living. Those who wish to base their
morality literally on the Bible have either not read it or not under-
stood it, as Bishop John Shelby Spong, in The Sins of Scripture,
rightly observed. Bishop Spong, by the way, is a nice example of a
liberal bishop whose beliefs are so advanced as to be almost un-
recognizable to the majority of those who call themselves

Christians. A British counterpart is Richard Holloway, recently
retired as Bishop of Edinburgh. Bishop Holloway even describes
himself as a 'recovering Christian'. I had a public discussion with
him in Edinburgh, which was one of the most stimulating and
interesting encounters I have had.91

THE OLD TESTAMENT

Begin in Genesis with the well-loved story of Noah, derived from
the Babylonian myth of Uta-Napisthim and known from the older
mythologies of several cultures. The legend of the animals going
into the ark two by two is charming, but the moral of the story of

238 T H F G O D D E L U S I O N

Noah is appalling. God took a dim view of humans, so he (with the
exception of one family) drowned the lot of them including children
and also, for good measure, the rest of the (presumably blameless)

animals as well.

Of course, irritated theologians will protest that we don't take
the book of Genesis literally any more. But that is my whole point!

We pick and choose which bits of scripture to believe, which bits to
write off as symbols or allegories. Such picking and choosing is a
matter of personal decision, just as much, or as little, as the atheist's
decision to follow this moral precept or that was a personal
decision, without an absolute foundation. If one of these is

'morality flying by the seat of its pants', so is the other.

In any case, despite the good intentions of the sophisticated
theologian, a frighteningly large number of people still do take their
scriptures, including the story of Noah, literally. According to

Gallup, they include approximately 50 per cent of the US elec-
torate. Also, no doubt, many of those Asian holy men who blamed
the 2004 tsunami not on a plate tectonic shift but on human sins,92
ranging from drinking and dancing in bars to breaking some
footling sabbath rule. Steeped in the story of Noah, and ignorant of
all except biblical learning, who can blame them? Their whole edu-
cation has led them to view natural disasters as bound up with
human affairs, paybacks for human misdemeanours rather than
anything so impersonal as plate tectonics. By the way, what pre-
sumptuous egocentricity to believe that earth-shaking events, on
the scale at which a god (or a tectonic plate) might operate, must
always have a human connection. Why should a divine being, with
creation and eternity on his mind, care a fig for petty human male-
factions? We humans give ourselves such airs, even aggrandizing
our poky little 'sins' to the level of cosmic significance!

When I interviewed for television the Reverend Michael Bray, a
prominent American anti-abortion activist, I asked him why
evangelical Christians were so obsessed with private sexual inclin-
ations such as homosexuality, which didn't interfere with anybody
else's life. His reply invoked something like self-defence. Innocent
citizens are at risk of becoming collateral damage when God
chooses to strike a town with a natural disaster because it houses
sinners. In 2005, the fine city of New Orleans was catastrophically

T H E ' G O O D ' B O O K A N D T H E M O R A L Z £ 1 T G E I S T 2 3 9
flooded in the aftermath of a hurricane, Katrina. The Reverend Pat

Robertson, one of America's best-known televangelists and a former
presidential candidate, was reported as blaming the hurricane on a
lesbian comedian who happened to live in New Orleans. * You'd
think an omnipotent God would adopt a slightly more targeted
approach to zapping sinners: a judicious heart attack, perhaps,
rather than the wholesale destruction of an entire city just because
it happened to be the domicile of one lesbian comedian.

In November 2005, the citizens of Dover, Pennsylvania voted off
their local school board the entire slate of fundamentalists who had
brought the town notoriety, not to say ridicule, by attempting to
enforce the teaching of 'intelligent design'. When Pat Robertson
heard that the fundamentalists had been democratically defeated at
the ballot, he offered a stern warning to Dover:

I'd like to say to the good citizens of Dover, if there is a
disaster in your area, don't turn to God. You just rejected
him from your city, and don't wonder why he hasn't
helped you when problems begin, if they begin, and I'm
not saying they will. But if they do, just remember you just
voted God out of your city. And if that's the case, then
don't ask for his help, because he might not be there.93

Pat Robertson would be harmless comedy, were he less typical of
those who today hold power and influence in the United States.

In the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, the Noah
equivalent, chosen to be spared with his family because he was
uniquely righteous, was Abraham's nephew Lot. Two male angels
were sent to Sodom to warn Lot to leave the city before the brim-
stone arrived. Lot hospitably welcomed the angels into his house,
whereupon all the men of Sodom gathered around and demanded
that Lot should hand the angels over so that they could (what else?)

* It is unclear whether the story, which originated at http://datelinehollywood.com/
archives/2005/09/05/robertson-blames-hurricane-on-choice-of-ellen-deneres-to-host-
emmys/ is true. Whether true or not, it is widely believed, no doubt because it is entirely
typical of utterances by evangelical clergy, including Robertson, on disasters such as

Katrina. See, for example, www.emediawire.com/releases/2005/9/emw281940.htm.

The website that says the Katrina story is untrue (www.snopes.com/katrina/
satire/robertson.asp) also quotes Robertson as saying, of an earlier Gay Pride march in

Orlando, Florida, 'I would warn Orlando that you're right in the way of some serious
hurricanes, and I don't think I'd be waving those flags in God's face if I were you.'

240 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
sodomize them: 'Where are the men which came in to thee this
night? Bring them out unto us, that we may know them' (Genesis

19: 5). Yes, 'know' has the Authorized Version's usual euphemistic
meaning, which is very funny in the context. Lot's gallantry in
refusing the demand suggests that God might have been onto some-
thing when he singled him out as the only good man in Sodom. But

Lot's halo is tarnished by the terms of his refusal: 'I pray you,
brethren, do not so wickedly. Behold now, I have two daughters
which have not known man; let me, I pray you, bring them out
unto you, and do ye to them as is good in your eyes: only unto these
men do nothing; for therefore came they under the shadow of my
roof (Genesis 19: 7-8).

Whatever else this strange story might mean, it surely tells us
something about the respect accorded to women in this intensely
religious culture. As it happened, Lot's bargaining away of his
daughters' virginity proved unnecessary, for the angels succeeded in
repelling the marauders by miraculously striking them blind. They
then warned Lot to decamp immediately with his family and his
animals, because the city was about to be destroyed. The whole
household escaped, with the exception of Lot's unfortunate wife,
whom the Lord turned into a pillar of salt because she committed
the offence - comparatively mild, one might have thought - of
looking over her shoulder at the fireworks display.

Lot's two daughters make a brief reappearance in the story. After
their mother was turned into a pillar of salt, they lived with their
father in a cave up a mountain. Starved of male company, they
decided to make their father drunk and copulate with him. Lot was
beyond noticing when his elder daughter arrived in his bed or when
she left, but he was not too drunk to impregnate her. The next night
the two daughters agreed it was the younger one's turn. Again Lot
was too drunk to notice, and he impregnated her too (Genesis 19:

31-6). If this dysfunctional family was the best Sodom had to offer
by way of morals, some might begin to feel a certain sympathy with

God and his judicial brimstone.

The story of Lot and the Sodomites is eerily echoed in chapter

19 of the book of Judges, where an unnamed Levite (priest) was
travelling with his concubine in Gibeah. They spent the night in the
house of a hospitable old man. While they were eating their supper,

H E ' G O O D " B O O K A N D T H E M O R A L Z E I T G E I S T 2 4 1
the men of the city came and beat on the door, demanding that the
old man should hand over his male guest 'so that we may know
him'. In almost exactly the same words as Lot, the old man said:

'Nay, my brethren, nay, I pray you, do not so wickedly; seeing that
this man is come into mine house do not this folly. Behold, here is
my daughter a maiden, and his concubine; them I will bring out
now, and humble ye them, and do with them what seemeth good
unto you; but unto this man do not so vile a thing' (Judges 19:

23-4). Again, the misogynistic ethos comes through, loud and
clear. I find the phrase 'humble ye them' particularly chilling. Enjoy
yourselves by humiliating and raping my daughter and this priest's
concubine, but show a proper respect for my guest who is, after all,
male. In spite of the similarity between the two stories, the denouement
was less happy for the Levite's concubine than for Lot's daughters.

The Levite handed her over to the mob, who gang-raped her all
night: 'They knew her and abused her all the night until the morn-
ing: and when the day began to spring, they let her go. Then came
the woman in the dawning of the day, and fell down at the door
of the man's house where her lord was, till it was light' (Judges 19:

25-6). In the morning, the Levite found his concubine lying
prostrate on the doorstep and said - with what we today might see
as callous abruptness - 'Up, and let us be going.' But she didn't
move. She was dead. So he 'took a knife, and laid hold on his con-
cubine, and divided her, together with her bones, into twelve pieces,
and sent her into all the coasts of Israel'. Yes, you read correctly.

Look it up in Judges 19: 29. Let's charitably put it down again to
the ubiquitous weirdness of the Bible. This story is so similar to that
of Lot, one can't help wondering whether a fragment of manuscript
became accidentally misplaced in some long-forgotten scriptorium:

an illustration of the erratic provenance of sacred texts.

Lot's uncle Abraham was the founding father of all three 'great'

monotheistic religions. His patriarchal status renders him only
somewhat less likely than God to be taken as a role model. But
what modern moralist would wish to follow him? Relatively early
in his long life, Abraham went to Egypt to tough out a famine with
his wife Sarah. He realized that such a beautiful woman would be
desirable to the Egyptians and that therefore his own life, as her
husband, might be endangered. So he decided to pass her off as his

242 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
sister. In this capacity she was taken into Pharaoh's harem, and

Abraham consequently became rich in Pharaoh's favour. God dis-
approved of this cosy arrangement, and sent plagues on Pharaoh
and his house (why not on Abraham?). An understandably
aggrieved Pharaoh demanded to know why Abraham had not told
him Sarah was his wife. He then handed her back to Abraham and
kicked them both out of Egypt (Genesis 12: 18-19). Weirdly, it
seems that the couple later tried to pull the same stunt again, this
time with Abimelech the King of Gerar. He too was induced by

Abraham to marry Sarah, again having been led to believe she
was Abraham's sister, not his wife (Genesis 20: 2-5). He too
expressed his indignation, in almost identical terms to Pharaoh's,
and one can't help sympathizing with both of them. Is the similarity
another indicator of textual unreliability?

Such unpleasant episodes in Abraham's story are mere
peccadilloes compared with the infamous tale of the sacrificing of
his son Isaac (Muslim scripture tells the same story about

Abraham's other son, Ishmael). God ordered Abraham to make a
burnt offering of his longed-for son. Abraham built an altar, put
firewood upon it, and trussed Isaac up on top of the wood. His
murdering knife was already in his hand when an angel
dramatically intervened with the news of a last-minute change of
plan: God was only joking after all, 'tempting' Abraham, and test-
ing his faith. A modern moralist cannot help but wonder how a
child could ever recover from such psychological trauma. By the
standards of modern morality, this disgraceful story is an example
simultaneously of child abuse, bullying in two asymmetrical power
relationships, and the first recorded use of the Nuremberg defence:

'I was only obeying orders.' Yet the legend is one of the great
foundational myths of all three monotheistic religions.

Once again, modern theologians will protest that the story of

Abraham sacrificing Isaac should not be taken as literal fact. And,
once again, the appropriate response is twofold. First, many many
people, even to this day, do take the whole of their scripture to be
literal fact, and they have a great deal of political power over the
rest of us, especially in the United States and in the Islamic world.

Second, if not as literal fact, how should we take the story? As an
allegory? Then an allegory for what? Surely nothing praiseworthy.

T H E ' G O O D ' B O O K A N D T H E M O R A L Z E I T G E J S T 2 4 3

As a moral lesson? But what kind of morals could one derive from
this appalling story? Remember, all I am trying to establish for the
moment is that we do not, as a matter of fact, derive our morals
from scripture. Or, if we do, we pick and choose among the
scriptures for the nice bits and reject the nasty. But then we must
have some independent criterion for deciding which are the moral
bits: a criterion which, wherever it comes from, cannot come from
scripture itself and is presumably available to all of us whether we
are religious or not.

Apologists even seek to salvage some decency for the God
character in this deplorable tale. Wasn't it good of God to spare

Isaac's life at the last minute? In the unlikely event that any of my
readers are persuaded by this obscene piece of special pleading, I
refer them to another story of human sacrifice, which ended more
unhappily. In Judges, chapter 11, the military leader Jephthah made
a bargain with God that, if God would guarantee Jephthah's victory
over the Ammonites, Jephthah would, without fail, sacrifice as a
burnt offering 'whatsoever cometh forth of the doors of my house
to meet me, when I return'. Jephthah did indeed defeat the

Ammonites ('with a very great slaughter', as is par for the course in
the book of Judges) and he returned home victorious. Not surpris-
ingly, his daughter, his only child, came out of the house to greet
him (with timbrels and dances) and - alas - she was the first living
thing to do so. Understandably Jephthah rent his clothes, but there
was nothing he could do about it. God was obviously looking for-
ward to the promised burnt offering, and in the circumstances the
daughter very decently agreed to be sacrificed. She asked only that
she should be allowed to go into the mountains for two months to
bewail her virginity. At the end of this time she meekly returned, and

Jephthah cooked her. God did not see fit to intervene on this occasion.

God's monumental rage whenever his chosen people flirted with
a rival god resembles nothing so much as sexual jealousy of the
worst kind, and again it should strike a modern moralist as far
from good role-model material. The temptation to sexual infidelity
is readily understandable even to those who do not succumb, and it
is a staple of fiction and drama, from Shakespeare to bedroom
farce. But the apparently irresistible temptation to whore with
foreign gods is something we moderns find harder to empathize

244 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
with. To my naive eyes, 'Thou shalt have no other gods but me'

would seem an easy enough commandment to keep: a doddle, one
might think, compared with 'Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's
wife'. Or her ass. (Or her ox.) Yet throughout the Old Testament,
with the same predictable regularity as in bedroom farce, God had
only to turn his back for a moment and the Children of Israel
would be off and at it with Baal, or some trollop of a graven
image.* Or, on one calamitous occasion, a golden calf . . .

Moses, even more than Abraham, is a likely role model for
followers of all three monotheistic religions. Abraham may be the
original patriarch, but if anybody should be called the doctrinal
founder of Judaism and its derivative religions, it is Moses. On the
occasion of the golden calf episode, Moses was safely out of the
way up Mount Sinai, communing with God and getting tablets of
stone graven by him. The people down below (who were on pain
of death to refrain from so much as touching the mountain) didn't
waste any time:

When the people saw that Moses delayed to come down
out of the mount, the people gathered themselves together
unto Aaron, and said unto him, Up, make us gods, which
shall go before us; for as for this Moses, the man that
brought us up out of the land of Egypt, we wot not what
is become of him. (Exodus 32: 1)

Aaron got everybody to pool their gold, melted it down and made
a golden calf, for which newly invented deity he then built an altar
so they could all start sacrificing to it.

Well, they should have known better than to fool around behind

God's back like that. He might be up a mountain but he was, after
all, omniscient and he lost no time in despatching Moses as his
enforcer. Moses raced hotfoot down the mountain, carrying the
stone tablets on which God had written the Ten Commandments.

When he arrived and saw the golden calf he was so furious that he
dropped the tablets and broke them (God later gave him a replace-
ment set, so that was all right). Moses seized the golden calf,
burned it, ground it to powder, mixed it with water and made the

* This richly comic idea was suggested to me by Jonathan Miller who, surprisingly,
never included it in a Beyond the Fringe sketch. I also thank him for recommend-
ing the scholarly book upon which it is based: Halbertal and Margalit (1992).

T H E ' G O O D ' B O () K A N D T H E M O R A L Z £ i T G £ I S T 245
people swallow it. Then he told everybody in the priestly tribe of

Levi to pick up a sword and kill as many people as possible. This
amounted to about three thousand which, one might have hoped,
would have been enough to assuage God's jealous sulk. But no,

God wasn't finished yet. In the last verse of this terrible chapter his
parting shot was to send a plague upon what was left of the people

'because they made the calf, which Aaron made'.

The book of Numbers tells how God incited Moses to attack the

Midianites. His army made short work of slaying all the men, and
they burned all the Midianite cities, but they didn't kill the women
and children. This merciful restraint by his soldiers infuriated

Moses, and he gave orders that all the boy children should be
killed, and all the women who were not virgins. 'But all the women
children, that have not known a man by lying with him, keep alive
for yourselves' (Numbers 31: 18). No, Moses was not a great role
model for modern moralists.

In so far as modern religious writers attach any kind of symbolic
or allegorical meaning to the massacre of the Midianites, the
symbolism is aimed in precisely the wrong direction. The un-
fortunate Midianites, so far as one can tell from the biblical
account, were the victims of genocide in their own country. Yet
their name lives on in Christian lore only in that favourite hymn

(which I can still sing from memory after fifty years, to two
different tunes, both in grim minor keys):

Christian, dost thou see them

On the holy ground?

How the troops of Midian

Prowl and prowl around?

Christian, up and smite them,

Counting gain but loss;

Smite them by the merit

Of the holy cross.

Alas, poor slandered, slaughtered Midianites, to be remembered
only as poetic symbols of universal evil in a Victorian hymn.

The rival god Baal seems to have been a perennially seductive
tempter to wayward worship. In Numbers, chapter 25, many of the

246 T H E G O D D E I, U S I O N

Israelites were lured by Moabite women to sacrifice to Baal. God
reacted with characteristic fury. He ordered Moses to 'Take all the
heads of the people and hang them up before the Lord against the
sun, that the fierce anger of the Lord may be turned away from

Israel.' One cannot help, yet again, marvelling at the extra-
ordinarily draconian view taken of the sin of flirting with rival
gods. To our modern sense of values and justice it seems a trifling
sin compared to, say, offering your daughter for a gang rape. It is
yet another example of the disconnect between scriptural and
modern (one is tempted to say civilized) morals. Of course, it is
easily enough understood in terms of the theory of memes, and the
qualities that a deity needs in order to survive in the meme pool.

The tragi-farce of God's maniacal jealousy against alternative
gods recurs continually throughout the Old Testament. It motivates
the first of the Ten Commandments (the ones on the tablets that

Moses broke: Exodus 20, Deuteronomy 5), and it is even more
prominent in the (otherwise rather different) substitute command-
ments that God provided to replace the broken tablets (Exodus 34).

Having promised to drive out of their homelands the unfortunate

Amorites, Canaanites, Hittites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites,

God gets down to what really matters: rival godsl

. . . ye shall destroy their altars, break their images, and
cut down their groves. For thou shalt worship no other
god: for the Lord, whose name is Jealous, is a jealous

God. Lest thou make a covenant with the inhabitants of
the land, and they go a whoring after their gods, and do
sacrifice unto their gods, and one call thee, and thou eat
of his sacrifice; And thou take of their daughters unto thy
sons, and their daughters go a whoring after their gods,
and make thy sons go a whoring after their gods. Thou
shalt make thee no molten gods (Exodus 34: 13-17)

I know, yes, of course, of course, times have changed, and no
religious leader today (apart from the likes of the Taliban or the

American Christian equivalent) thinks like Moses. But that is my
whole point. All I am establishing is that modern morality, wher-
ever else it comes from, does not come from the Bible. Apologists

T H E ' G O I H ) ' B O O K A N l > T H I - M O R A L / /•. I ' l C I I S T 2 4 7
cannot get away with claiming that religion provides them with
some sort of inside track to defining what is good and what is bad

- a privileged source unavailable to atheists. They cannot get away
with it, not even if they employ that favourite trick of interpreting
selected scriptures as 'symbolic' rather than literal. By what crite-
rion do you decide which passages are symbolic, which literal?

The ethnic cleansing begun in the time of Moses is brought to
bloody fruition in the book of Joshua, a text remarkable for the
bloodthirsty massacres it records and the xenophobic relish with
which it does so. As the charming old song exultantly has it,

'Joshua fit the battle of Jericho, and the walls came a-tumbling
down . . . There's none like good old Joshuay, at the battle of

Jericho.' Good old Joshua didn't rest until 'they utterly destroyed
all that was in the city, both man and woman, young and old, and
ox, and sheep, and ass, with the edge of the sword' (Joshua 6: 21).

Yet again, theologians will protest, it didn't happen. Well, no -
the story has it that the walls came tumbling down at the mere
sound of men shouting and blowing horns, so indeed it didn't
happen - but that is not the point. The point is that, whether true
or not, the Bible is held up to us as the source of our morality. And
the Bible story of Joshua's destruction of Jericho, and the invasion
of the Promised Land in general, is morally indistinguishable from

Hitler's invasion of Poland, or Saddam Hussein's massacres of the

Kurds and the Marsh Arabs. The Bible may be an arresting and
poetic work of fiction, but it is not the sort of book you should give
your children to form their morals. As it happens, the story of

Joshua in Jericho is the subject of an interesting experiment in child
morality, to be discussed later in this chapter.

Do not think, by the way, that the God character in the story
nursed any doubts or scruples about the massacres and genocides
that accompanied the seizing of the Promised Land. On the
contrary, his orders, for example in Deuteronomy 20, were ruth-
lessly explicit. He made a clear distinction between the people who
lived in the land that was needed, and those who lived a long way
away. The latter should be invited to surrender peacefully. If they
refused, all the men were to be killed and the women carried off for
breeding. In contrast to this relatively humane treatment, see what
was in store for those tribes unfortunate enough to be already in

2 4 8 T H P. G O D D E I, U S I O N
residence in the promised Lebensraum: 'But of the cities of these
people, which the Lord thy God doth give thee for an inheritance,
thou shalt save alive nothing that breatheth: But thou shalt utterly
destroy them; namely, the Hittites, and the Amorites, the

Canaanites, and the Perizzites, the Hivites and the Jebusites; as
the Lord thy God hath commanded thee.'

Do those people who hold up the Bible as an inspiration to
moral rectitude have the slightest notion of what is actually written
in it? The following offences merit the death penalty, according to

Leviticus 20: cursing your parents; committing adultery; making
love to your stepmother or your daughter-in-law; homosexuality;
marrying a woman and her daughter; bestiality (and, to add injury
to insult, the unfortunate beast is to be killed too). You also get
executed, of course, for working on the sabbath: the point is made
again and again throughout the Old Testament. In Numbers 15, the
children of Israel found a man in the wilderness gathering sticks on
the forbidden day. They arrested him and then asked God what to
do with him. As it turned out, God was in no mood for half-
measures that day. 'And the Lord said unto Moses, The man shall
surely be put to death: all the congregation shall stone him with
stones without the camp. And all the congregation brought him
without the camp, and stoned him with stones, and he died.' Did
this harmless gatherer of firewood have a wife and children to
grieve for him? Did he whimper with fear as the first stones flew,
and scream with pain as the fusillade crashed into his head?

What shocks me today about such stories is not that they really
happened. They probably didn't. What makes my jaw drop is that
people today should base their lives on such an appalling role
model as Yahweh - and, even worse, that they should bossily try
to force the same evil monster (whether fact or fiction) on the rest
of us.

The political power of America's Ten Commandment tablet-
toters is especially regrettable in that great republic whose
constitution, after all, was drawn up by men of the Enlightenment
in explicitly secular terms. If we took the Ten Commandments
seriously, we would rank the worship of the wrong gods, and the
making of graven images, as first and second among sins. Rather
than condemn the unspeakable vandalism of the Taliban, who

T H E ' G O O D ' BO O K A N D T H E M O R A L Z i, / T (• I I S T 2 4 9
dynamited the 150-foot-high Bamiyan Buddhas in the mountains of

Afghanistan, we would praise them for their righteous piety. What
we think of as their vandalism was certainly motivated by sincere
religious zeal. This is vividly attested by a truly bizarre story, which
was the lead in the (London) Independent of 6 August 2005. Under
the front-page headline, 'The destruction of Mecca', the

Independent reported:

Historic Mecca, the cradle of Islam, is being buried in an
unprecedented onslaught by religious zealots. Almost all
of the rich and multi-layered history of the holy city is
gone . . . Now the actual birthplace of the Prophet

Muhammad is facing the bulldozers, with the connivance
of Saudi religious authorities whose hardline inter-
pretation of Islam is compelling them to wipe out their
own heritage . . . The motive behind the destruction is the

Wahhabists' fanatical fear that places of historical and
religious interest could give rise to idolatry or polytheism,
the worship of multiple and potentially equal gods. The
practice of idolatry in Saudi Arabia remains, in principle,
punishable by beheading.

I do not believe there is an atheist in the world who would bulldoze

Mecca - or Chartres, York Minster or Notre Dame, the Shwe

Dagon, the temples of Kyoto or, of course, the Buddhas of

Bamiyan. As the Nobel Prize-winning American physicist Steven

Weinberg said, 'Religion is an insult to human dignity. With or
without it, you'd have good people doing good things and evil
people doing evil things. But for good people to do evil things, it
takes religion.' Blaise Pascal (he of the wager) said something
similar: 'Men never do evil so completely and cheerfully as when
they do it from religious conviction.'

My main purpose here has not been to show that we shouldn't
get our morals from scripture (although that is my opinion). My
purpose has been to demonstrate that we (and that includes most
religious people) as a matter of fact don't get our morals from
scripture. If we did, we would strictly observe the sabbath and
think it just and proper to execute anybody who chose not to. We

250 i' i " I'- G O i"> I M - I .

would stone to death any new bride who couldn't prove she was a
virgin, if her husband pronounced himself unsatisfied with her. We
would execute disobedient children. We would . . . but wait.

Perhaps I have been unfair. Nice Christians will have been
protesting throughout this section: everyone knows the Old

Testament is pretty unpleasant. The New Testament of Jesus
undoes the damage and makes it all right. Doesn't it?

Is THE N E W TESTAMENT ANY BETTER?

Well, there's no denying that, from a moral point of view, Jesus is a
huge improvement over the cruel ogre of the Old Testament. Indeed

Jesus, if he existed (or whoever wrote his script if he didn't) was
surely one of the great ethical innovators of history. The Sermon on
the Mount is way ahead of its time. His 'turn the other cheek'

anticipated Gandhi and Martin Luther King by two thousand
years. It was not for nothing that I wrote an article called 'Atheists
for Jesus' (and was later delighted to be presented with a T-shirt
bearing the legend).94

But the moral superiority of Jesus precisely bears out my point.

Jesus was not content to derive his ethics from the scriptures of his
upbringing. He explicitly departed from them, for example when he
deflated the dire warnings about breaking the sabbath. 'The
sabbath was made for man, not man for the sabbath' has been
generalized into a wise proverb. Since a principal thesis of this
chapter is that we do not, and should not, derive our morals from
scripture, Jesus has to be honoured as a model for that very thesis.

Jesus' family values, it has to be admitted, were not such as one
might wish to focus on. He was short, to the point of brusqueness,
with his own mother, and he encouraged his disciples to abandon
their families to follow him. 'If any man come to me and hate not
his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and
sisters, yea and his own life also, he cannot be my disciple.' The

American comedian Julia Sweeney expressed her bewilderment in
her one-woman stage show, Letting Go of God:95 'Isn't that what
cults do? Get you to reject your family in order to inculcate you?96

' ! I K ' G O O 1 ) ' B O O K A N I") T H h. M O R A L 7. E 1 T C h. i S T 2 5 1

Notwithstanding his somewhat dodgy family values, Jesus'

ethical teachings were - at least by comparison with the ethical
disaster area that is the Old Testament - admirable; but there are
other teachings in the New Testament that no good person should
support. I refer especially to the central doctrine of Christianity:

that of 'atonement' for 'original sin'. This teaching, which lies at the
heart of New Testament theology, is almost as morally obnoxious
as the story of Abraham setting out to barbecue Isaac, which it
resembles - and that is no accident, as Geza Vermes makes clear in

The Changing Faces of Jesus. Original sin itself comes straight from
the Old Testament myth of Adam and Eve. Their sin - eating the
fruit of a forbidden tree - seems mild enough to merit a mere
reprimand. But the symbolic nature of the fruit (knowledge of good
and evil, which in practice turned out to be knowledge that they
were naked) was enough to turn their scrumping escapade into the
mother and father of all sins.* They and all their descendants were
banished forever from the Garden of Eden, deprived of the gift of
eternal life, and condemned to generations of painful labour, in the
field and in childbirth respectively.

So far, so vindictive: par for the Old Testament course. New

Testament theology adds a new injustice, topped off by a new sado-
masochism whose viciousness even the Old Testament barely
exceeds. It is, when you think about it, remarkable that a religion
should adopt an instrument of torture and execution as its sacred
symbol, often worn around the neck. Lenny Bruce rightly quipped
that 'If Jesus had been killed twenty years ago, Catholic school
children would be wearing little electric chairs around their necks
instead of crosses.' But the theology and punishment-theory behind
it is even worse. The sin of Adam and Eve is thought to have passed
down the male line - transmitted in the semen according to

Augustine. What kind of ethical philosophy is it that condemns
every child, even before it is born, to inherit the sin of a remote
ancestor? Augustine, by the way, who rightly regarded himself
as something of a personal authority on sin, was responsible for

* I am aware that 'scrumping' will not be familiar to American readers. But I enjoy
reading unfamiliar American words and looking them up to broaden my vocabu-
lary. I have deliberately used a few other region-specific words for this reason.

Scrumping itself is a mot juste of unusual economy. It doesn't just mean stealing:

it specifically means stealing apples and only apples. It is hard for a mot to get more juste than that. Admittedly the Genesis story doesn't specify that the fruit
was an apple, but tradition has long held it so.

2 5 2 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
coining the phrase 'original sin'. Before him it was known as 'ances-
tral sin'. Augustine's pronouncements and debates epitomize, for
me, the unhealthy preoccupation of early Christian theologians
with sin. They could have devoted their pages and their sermons to
extolling the sky splashed with stars, or mountains and green
forests, seas and dawn choruses. These are occasionally mentioned,
but the Christian focus is overwhelmingly on sin sin sin sin sin sin
sin. What a nasty little preoccupation to have dominating your life.

Sam Harris is magnificently scathing in his Letter to a Christian

Nation: 'Your principal concern appears to be that the Creator of
the universe will take offense at something people do while naked.

This prudery of yours contributes daily to the surplus of human
misery.'

But now, the sado-masochism. God incarnated himself as a man,

Jesus, in order that he should be tortured and executed in atone-
ment for the hereditary sin of Adam. Ever since Paul expounded
this repellent doctrine, Jesus has been worshipped as the redeemer
of all our sins. Not just the past sin of Adam: future sins as well,
whether future people decided to commit them or not!

As another aside, it has occurred to various people, including

Robert Graves in his epic novel King Jesus, that poor Judas Iscariot
has received a bad deal from history, given that his 'betrayal' was a
necessary part of the cosmic plan. The same could be said of Jesus'

alleged murderers. If Jesus wanted to be betrayed and then
murdered, in order that he could redeem us all, isn't it rather unfair
of those who consider themselves redeemed to take it out on Judas
and on Jews down the ages? I have already mentioned the long list
of non-canonical gospels. A manuscript purporting to be the lost

Gospel of Judas has recently been translated and has received
publicity in consequence.97 The circumstances of its discovery are
disputed, but it seems to have turned up in Egypt some time in the

1970s or 60s. It is in Coptic script on sixty-two pages of papyrus,
carbon-dated to around AD 300 but probably based on an earlier

Greek manuscript. Whoever the author was, the gospel is seen from
the point of view of Judas Iscariot and makes the case that Judas
betrayed Jesus only because Jesus asked him to play that role. It
was all part of the plan to get Jesus crucified so that he could
redeem humankind. Obnoxious as that doctrine is, it seems to com-

T H E - G O O D ' B O O K A N D T H E M O R A L Z E I T C I : 1 S 7 2 5 3
pound the unpleasantness that Judas has been vilified ever since.

I have described atonement, the central doctrine of Christianity,
as vicious, sado-masochistic and repellent. We should also dismiss
it as barking mad, but for its ubiquitous familiarity which has
dulled our objectivity. If God wanted to forgive our sins, why not
just forgive them, without having himself tortured and executed in
payment - thereby, incidentally, condemning remote future gener-
ations of Jews to pogroms and persecution as 'Christ-killers': did
that hereditary sin pass down in the semen too?

Paul, as the Jewish scholar Geza Vermes makes clear, was
steeped in the old Jewish theological principle that without blood
there is no atonement.98 Indeed, in his Epistle to the Hebrews (9:

22) he said as much. Progressive ethicists today find it hard to
defend any kind of retributive theory of punishment, let alone the
scapegoat theory - executing an innocent to pay for the sins of the
guilty. In any case (one can't help wondering), who was God trying
to impress? Presumably himself - judge and jury as well as
execution victim. To cap it all, Adam, the supposed perpetrator of
the original sin, never existed in the first place: an awkward fact -
excusably unknown to Paul but presumably known to an omnis-
cient God (and Jesus, if you believe he was God?) - which
fundamentally undermines the premise of the whole tortuously
nasty theory. Oh, but of course, the story of Adam and Eve was
only ever symbolic, wasn't it? Symbolic? So, in order to impress
himself, Jesus had himself tortured and executed, in vicarious
punishment for a symbolic sin committed by a non-existent
individual? As I said, barking mad, as well as viciously unpleasant.

Before leaving the Bible, I need to call attention to one par-
ticularly unpalatable aspect of its ethical teaching. Christians
seldom realize that much of the moral consideration for others
which is apparently promoted by both the Old and New

Testaments was originally intended to apply only to a narrowly
defined in-group. 'Love thy neighbour' didn't mean what we now
think it means. It meant only 'Love another Jew.' The point is
devastatingly made by the American physician and evolutionary
anthropologist John Hartung. He has written a remarkable paper
on the evolution and biblical history of in-group morality, laying
stress, too, on the flip side - out-group hostility.

2 5 4 C H F. G O I) D K I. U S I O N

LOVE THY NEIGHBOUR

John Hartung's black humour is evident from the outset," where he
tells of a Southern Baptist initiative to count the number of

Alabamans in hell. As reported in the New York Times and

Newsday the final total, 1.86 million, was estimated using a secret
weighting formula whereby Methodists are more likely to be saved
than Roman Catholics, while 'virtually everyone not belonging to a
church congregation was counted among the lost'. The preter-
natural smugness of such people is reflected today in the various

'rapture' websites, where the author always takes it completely for
granted that he will be among those who 'disappear' into heaven
when the 'end times' come. Here is a typical example, from the
author of 'Rapture Ready', one of the more odiously sanctimonious
specimens of the genre: 'If the rapture should take place, resulting
in my absence, it will become necessary for tribulation saints to
mirror or financially support this site.'*

Hartung's interpretation of the Bible suggests that it offers no
grounds for such smug complacency among Christians. Jesus
limited his in-group of the saved strictly to Jews, in which respect
he was following the Old Testament tradition, which was all he
knew. Hartung clearly shows that 'Thou shalt not kill' was never
intended to mean what we now think it means. It meant, very
specifically, thou shalt not kill Jews. And all those commandments
that make reference to 'thy neighbour' are equally exclusive.

'Neighbour' means fellow Jew. Moses Maimonides, the highly
respected twelfth-century rabbi and physician, expounds the full
meaning of 'Thou shalt not kill' as follows: 'If one slays a single

Israelite, he transgresses a negative commandment, for Scripture
says, Thou shalt not murder. If one murders wilfully in the presence
of witnesses, he is put to death by the sword. Needless to say, one
is not put to death if he kills a heathen.' Needless to say!

Hartung quotes the Sanhedrin (the Jewish Supreme Court,
headed by the high priest) in similar vein, as exonerating a man
who hypothetically killed an Israelite by mistake, while intending to
kill an animal or a heathen. This teasing little moral conundrum
raises a nice point. What if he were to throw a stone into a group

* You may not know the meaning of 'tribulation saints' in this sentence. Don't
bother: you have better things to do.

T H i : ' G O O I V Si O O K A N D T i l ! M O U A I . Z E I T C t:. I S T 2 5 5
of nine heathens and one Israelite and have the misfortune to kill
the Israelite? Hm, difficult! But the answer is ready. 'Then his non-
liability can be inferred from the fact that the majority were
heathens.'

Hartung uses many of the same biblical quotations as I have
used in this chapter, about the conquest of the Promised Land by

Moses, Joshua and the Judges. I was careful to concede that
religious people don't think in a biblical way any more. For me, this
demonstrated that our morals, whether we are religious or not,
come from another source; and that other source, whatever it is, is
available to all of us, regardless of religion or lack of it. But

Hartung tells of a horrifying study by the Israeli psychologist

George Tamarin. Tamarin presented to more than a thousand

Israeli schoolchildren, aged between eight and fourteen, the
account of the battle of Jericho in the book of Joshua:

Joshua said to the people, 'Shout; for the LORD has given
you the city. And the city and all that is within it shall be
devoted to the LORD for destruction . . . But all silver and
gold, and vessels of bronze and iron, are sacred to the

LORD; they shall go into the treasury of the LORD.' . . .

Then they utterly destroyed all in the city, both men and
women, young and old, oxen, sheep, and asses, with the
edge of the sword . . . And they burned the city with fire,
and all within it; only the silver and gold, and the vessels
of bronze and of iron, they put into the treasury of the
house of the LORD.

Tamarin then asked the children a simple moral question: 'Do you
think Joshua and the Israelites acted rightly or not?' They had to
choose between A (total approval), B (partial approval) and C

(total disapproval). The results were polarized: 66 per cent gave
total approval and 26 per cent total disapproval, with rather fewer

(8 per cent) in the middle with partial approval. Here are three
typical answers from the total approval (A) group:

In my opinion Joshua and the Sons of Israel acted well,
and here are the reasons: God promised them this land,

256 T H t G O D 1) E L U S I O N
and gave them permission to conquer. If they would not
have acted in this manner or killed anyone, then there
would be the danger that the Sons of Israel would have
assimilated among the Goyim.

In my opinion Joshua was right when he did it, one reason
being that God commanded him to exterminate the
people so that the tribes of Israel will not be able to
assimilate amongst them and learn their bad ways.

Joshua did good because the people who inhabited the
land were of a different religion, and when Joshua killed
them he wiped their religion from the earth.

The justification for the genocidal massacre by Joshua is religious
in every case. Even those in category C, who gave total disapproval,
did so, in some cases, for backhanded religious reasons. One girl,
for example, disapproved of Joshua's conquering Jericho because,
in order to do so, he had to enter it:

I think it is bad, since the Arabs are impure and if one
enters an impure land one will also become impure and
share their curse.

Two others who totally disapproved did so because Joshua
destroyed everything, including animals and property, instead of
keeping some as spoil for the Israelites:

I think Joshua did not act well, as they could have spared
the animals for themselves.

I think Joshua did not act well, as he could have left the
property of Jericho; if he had not destroyed the property
it would have belonged to the Israelites.

Once again the sage Maimonides, often cited for his scholarly
wisdom, is in no doubt where he stands on this issue: 'It is a positive
commandment to destroy the seven nations, as it is said: Thou shalt
utterly destroy them. If one does not put to death any of them that

T I I 1 - ' G O O D ' B O O K A N D T H E M O R A L Z E I T G E I S T 2 5 7
falls into one's power, one transgresses a negative commandment,
as it is said: Thou shalt save alive nothing that breatheth.'

Unlike Maimonides, the children in Tamarin's experiment were
young enough to be innocent. Presumably the savage views they
expressed were those of their parents, or the cultural group in
which they were brought up. It is, I suppose, not unlikely that

Palestinian children, brought up in the same war-torn country,
would offer equivalent opinions in the opposite direction. These
considerations fill me with despair. They seem to show the immense
power of religion, and especially the religious upbringing of
children, to divide people and foster historic enmities and
hereditary vendettas. I cannot help remarking that two out of

Tamarin's three representative quotations from group A mentioned
the evils of assimilation, while the third one stressed the importance
of killing people in order to stamp out their religion.

Tamarin ran a fascinating control group in his experiment. A
different group of 168 Israeli children were given the same text
from the book of Joshua, but with Joshua's own name replaced by

'General Lin' and 'Israel' replaced by 'a Chinese kingdom 3,000
years ago'. Now the experiment gave opposite results. Only 7 per
cent approved of General Lin's behaviour, and 75 per cent dis-
approved. In other words, when their loyalty to Judaism was
removed from the calculation, the majority of the children agreed
with the moral judgements that most modern humans would share.

Joshua's action was a deed of barbaric genocide. But it all looks
different from a religious point of view. And the difference starts
early in life. It was religion that made the difference between
children condemning genocide and condoning it.

In the latter half of Hartung's paper, he moves on to the New

Testament. To give a brief summary of his thesis, Jesus was a
devotee of the same in-group morality - coupled with out-group
hostility - that was taken for granted in the Old Testament. Jesus
was a loyal Jew. It was Paul who invented the idea of taking the

Jewish God to the Gentiles. Hartung puts it more bluntly than I
dare: 'Jesus would have turned over in his grave if he had known
that Paul would be taking his plan to the pigs.'

Hartung has some good fun with the book of Revelation, which
is certainly one of the weirdest books in the Bible. It is supposed to

2 5 8 T H !• (i O 1> l> K I U S I O N
have been written by St John and, as Ken's Guide to the Bible
neatly put it, if his epistles can be seen as John on pot, then

Revelation is John on acid.100 Hartung draws attention to the two
verses in Revelation where the number of those 'sealed' (which
some sects, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, interpret to mean

'saved') is limited to 144,000. Hartung's point is that they all had
to be Jews: 12,000 from each of the 12 tribes. Ken Smith goes
further, pointing out that the 144,000 elect 'did not defile them-
selves with women', which presumably means that none of them
could be women. Well, that's the sort of thing we've come to
expect.

There's a lot more in Hartung's entertaining paper. I shall simply
recommend it once more, and summarize it in a quotation:

The Bible is a blueprint of in-group morality, complete
with instructions for genocide, enslavement of out-groups,
and world domination. But the Bible is not evil by virtue
of its objectives or even its glorification of murder, cruelty,
and rape. Many ancient works do that - The Iliad, the

Icelandic Sagas, the tales of the ancient Syrians and
the inscriptions of the ancient Mayans, for example. But
no one is selling the Iliad as a foundation for morality.

Therein lies the problem. The Bible is sold, and bought, as
a guide to how people should live their lives. And it is, by
far, the world's all-time best seller.

Lest it be thought that the exclusiveness of traditional Judaism
is unique among religions, look at the following confident verse
from a hymn by Isaac Watts (1674-1748):

Lord, I ascribe it to Thy Grace,

And not to chance, as others do,

That I was born of Christian Race

And not a Heathen or a Jew.

What puzzles me about this verse is not the exclusiveness per se but
the logic. Since plenty of others were born into religions other than

Christianity, how did God decide which future people should

F i l l • ( . O O D ' B O O K A N D T H 1:' M O R A L / /.' / 7 * c ; 1 • / S ! 2 5 9
receive such favoured birth? Why favour Isaac Watts and those
individuals whom he visualized singing his hymn? In any case,
before Isaac Watts was conceived, what was the nature of the entity
being favoured? These are deep waters, but perhaps not too deep
for a mind tuned to theology. Isaac Watts's hymn is reminiscent of
three daily prayers that male Orthodox and Conservative (but not

Reform) Jews are taught to recite: 'Blessed are You for not making
me a Gentile. Blessed are You for not making me a woman. Blessed
are You for not making me a slave.'

Religion is undoubtedly a divisive force, and this is one of the
main accusations levelled against it. But it is frequently and rightly
said that wars, and feuds between religious groups or sects, are
seldom actually about theological disagreements. When an Ulster

Protestant paramilitary murders a Catholic, he is not muttering to
himself, 'Take that, transubstantiationist, mariolatrous, incense-
reeking bastard!' He is much more likely to be avenging the death
of another Protestant killed by another Catholic, perhaps in the
course of a sustained transgenerational vendetta. Religion is a label
of in-group/out-group enmity and vendetta, not necessarily worse
than other labels such as skin colour, language or preferred football
team, but often available when other labels are not.

Yes yes, of course the troubles in Northern Ireland are political.

There really has been economic and political oppression of one
group by another, and it goes back centuries. There really are
genuine grievances and injustices, and these seem to have little to
do with religion; except that - and this is important and widely
overlooked - without religion there would be no labels by which to
decide whom to oppress and whom to avenge. And the real
problem in Northern Ireland is that the labels are inherited down
many generations. Catholics, whose parents, grandparents and
great-grandparents went to Catholic schools, send their children to

Catholic schools. Protestants, whose parents, grandparents and
great-grandparents went to Protestant schools, send their children
to Protestant schools. The two sets of people have the same skin
colour, they speak the same language, they enjoy the same things,
but they might as well belong to different species, so deep is the
historic divide. And without religion, and religiously segregated
education, the divide simply would not be there. From Kosovo to

2 6 0 T H E (., O !) 1) I- I. U S I G N

Palestine, from Iraq to Sudan, from Ulster to the Indian sub-
continent, look carefully at any region of the world where you find
intractable enmity and violence between rival groups. I cannot
guarantee that you'll find religions as the dominant labels for in-
groups and out-groups. But it's a very good bet.

In India at the time of partition, more than a million people were
massacred in religious riots between Hindus and Muslims (and
fifteen million displaced from their homes). There were no badges
other than religious ones with which to label whom to kill.

Ultimately, there was nothing to divide them but religion. Salman

Rushdie was moved by a more recent bout of religious massacres in

India to write an article called 'Religion, as ever, is the poison in

India's blood'.101 Here's his concluding paragraph:

What is there to respect in any of this, or in any of the
crimes now being committed almost daily around
the world in religion's dreaded name? How well, with
what fatal results, religion erects totems, and how willing
we are to kill for them! And when we've done it often
enough, the deadening of affect that results makes it easier
to do it again.

So India's problem turns out to be the world's problem.

What happened in India has happened in God's name.

The problem's name is God.

I do not deny that humanity's powerful tendencies towards in-
group loyalties and out-group hostilities would exist even in the
absence of religion. Fans of rival football teams are an example of
the phenomenon writ small. Even football supporters sometimes
divide along religious lines, as in the case of Glasgow Rangers and

Glasgow Celtic. Languages (as in Belgium), races and tribes

(especially in Africa) can be important divisive tokens. But
religion amplifies and exacerbates the damage in at least three
ways:

• Labelling of children. Children are described as 'Catholic
children' or 'Protestant children' etc. from an early age, and
certainly far too early for them to have made up their own

T H |{ • (. O O D ' B O O K A N D T H E M O R A L Z E I 7 C E I S 7 2 6 1
minds on what they think about religion (I return to this abuse
of childhood in Chapter 9).

• Segregated schools. Children are educated, again often from a
very early age, with members of a religious in-group and
separately from children whose families adhere to other
religions. It is not an exaggeration to say that the troubles in

Northern Ireland would disappear in a generation if segregated
schooling were abolished.

• Taboos against 'marrying out'. This perpetuates hereditary
feuds and vendettas by preventing the mingling of feuding
groups. Intermarriage, if it were permitted, would naturally
tend to mollify enmities.

The village of Glenarm in Northern Ireland is the seat of the

Earls of Antrim. On one occasion within living memory, the then

Earl did the unthinkable: he married a Catholic. Immediately, in
houses throughout Glenarm, the blinds were drawn in mourning. A
horror of 'marrying out' is also widespread among religious Jews.

Several of the Israeli children quoted above mentioned the dire
perils of 'assimilation' at the forefront of their defence of Joshua's

Battle of Jericho. When people of different religions do marry, it is
described with foreboding on both sides as a 'mixed marriage' and
there are often prolonged battles over how the children are to be
brought up. When I was a child and still carried a guttering torch
for the Anglican Church, I remember being dumbfounded to be
told of a rule that when a Roman Catholic married an Anglican, the
children were always brought up Catholic. I could readily under-
stand why a priest of either denomination would try to insist on
this condition. What I couldn't understand (still can't) was
the asymmetry. Why didn't the Anglican priests retaliate with the
equivalent rule in reverse? Just less ruthless, I suppose. My old
chaplain and Betjeman's 'Our Padre' were simply too nice.

Sociologists have done statistical surveys of religious homogamy

(marrying somebody of the same religion) and heterogamy (marry-
ing somebody of a different religion). Norval D. Glenn, of the

University of Texas at Austin, gathered a number of such studies up
to 1978 and analysed them together.102 He concluded that there is

2 6 2 T H K C O D D E L U S I O N
a significant tendency towards religious homogamy in Christians

(Protestants marry Protestants, and Catholics Catholics, and this
goes beyond the ordinary 'boy next door effect'), but that it is
especially marked among Jews. Out of a total sample of 6,021
married respondents to the questionnaire, 140 called themselves

Jews and, of these, 85.7 per cent married Jews. This is hugely
greater than the randomly expected percentage of homogamous
marriages. And of course it will not come as news to anybody.

Observant Jews are strongly discouraged from 'marrying out', and
the taboo shows itself in Jewish jokes about mothers warning their
boys about blonde shiksas lying in wait to entrap them. Here are
typical statements by three American rabbis:

• 'I refuse to officiate at interfaith marriages.'

• 'I officiate when couples state their intention to raise children
as Jews.'

• 'I officiate if couples agree to premarital counselling.'

Rabbis who will agree to officiate together with a Christian priest
are rare, and much in demand.

Even if religion did no other harm in itself, its wanton and care-
fully nurtured divisiveness - its deliberate and cultivated pandering
to humanity's natural tendency to favour in-groups and shun out-
groups - would be enough to make it a significant force for evil in
the world.

THE MORAL ZEITGEIST

This chapter began by showing that we do not - even the religious
among us - ground our morality in holy books, no matter what we
may fondly imagine. How, then, do we decide what is right and
what is wrong? No matter how we answer that question, there is a
consensus about what we do as a matter of fact consider right and
wrong: a consensus that prevails surprisingly widely. The consensus
has no obvious connection with religion. It extends, however, to

H I - : ' G O O D ' B O O K A N D T H r M O R A ) / . V 1 ' i C E } S 1 ' 2 6 3
most religious people, whether or not they think their morals come
from scripture. With notable exceptions such as the Afghan Taliban
and the American Christian equivalent, most people pay lip service
to the same broad liberal consensus of ethical principles. The
majority of us don't cause needless suffering; we believe in free
speech and protect it even if we disagree with what is being said; we
pay our taxes; we don't cheat, don't kill, don't commit incest, don't
do things to others that we would not wish done to us. Some of
these good principles can be found in holy books, but buried along-
side much else that no decent person would wish to follow: and the
holy books do not supply any rules for distinguishing the good
principles from the bad.

One way to express our consensual ethics is as a 'New Ten

Commandments'. Various individuals and institutions have
attempted this. What is significant is that they tend to produce
rather similar results to each other, and what they produce is
characteristic of the times in which they happen to live. Here is one
set of 'New Ten Commandments' from today, which I happened to
find on an atheist website.103

• Do not do to others what you would not want them to do to
you.

• In all things, strive to cause no harm.

• Treat your fellow human beings, your fellow living things, and
the world in general with love, honesty, faithfulness and
respect.

• Do not overlook evil or shrink from administering justice, but
always be ready to forgive wrongdoing freely admitted and
honestly regretted.

• Live life with a sense of joy and wonder.

• Always seek to be learning something new.

• Test all things; always check your ideas against the facts, and
be ready to discard even a cherished belief if it does not
conform to them.

264 T H R G O D D E L U S I O N

• Never seek to censor or cut yourself off from dissent; always
respect the right of others to disagree with you.

• Form independent opinions on the basis of your own reason
and experience; do not allow yourself to be led blindly by
others.

• Question everything.

This little collection is not the work of a great sage or prophet
or professional ethicist. It is just one ordinary web logger's rather
endearing attempt to summarize the principles of the good life
today, for comparison with the biblical Ten Commandments. It was
the first list I found when I typed 'New Ten Commandments' into
a search engine, and I deliberately didn't look any further. The
whole point is that it is the sort of list that any ordinary, decent
person today would come up with. Not everybody would home in
on exactly the same list of ten. The philosopher John Rawls might
include something like the following: 'Always devise your rules as
if you didn't know whether you were going be at the top or the
bottom of the pecking order.' An alleged Inuit system for sharing
out food is a practical example of the Rawls principle: the
individual who cuts up the food gets last pick.

In my own amended Ten Commandments, I would choose some
of the above, but I would also try to find room for, among others:

• Enjoy your own sex life (so long as it damages nobody else)

and leave others to enjoy theirs in private whatever their

• inclinations, which are none of your business.

• Do not discriminate or oppress on the basis of sex, race or (as
far as possible) species.

• Do not indoctrinate your children. Teach them how to think
for themselves, how to evaluate evidence, and how to disagree
with you.

• Value the future on a timescale longer than your own.

But never mind these small differences of priority. The point is

T H I: ' G O O D ' B O O K A N D T H E M O R A I, Z /• I f C I: 1 S T 265
that we have almost all moved on, and in a big way, since biblical
times. Slavery, which was taken for granted in the Bible and
throughout most of history, was abolished in civilized countries in
the nineteenth century. All civilized nations now accept what was
widely denied up to the 1920s, that a woman's vote, in an election
or on a jury, is the equal of a man's. In today's enlightened societies

(a category that manifestly does not include, for example, Saudi

Arabia), women are no longer regarded as property, as they clearly
were in biblical times. Any modern legal system would have
prosecuted Abraham for child abuse. And if he had actually carried
through his plan to sacrifice Isaac, we would have convicted him of
first-degree murder. Yet, according to the mores of his time, his
conduct was entirely admirable, obeying God's commandment.

Religious or not, we have all changed massively in our attitude to
what is right and what is wrong. What is the nature of this change,
and what drives it?

In any society there exists a somewhat mysterious consensus,
which changes over the decades, and for which it is not pretentious
to use the German loan-word Zeitgeist (spirit of the times). I said
that female suffrage was now universal in the world's democracies,
but this reform is in fact astonishingly recent. Here are some dates
at which women were granted the vote:

New Zealand

1893

Australia

1902

Finland

1906

Norway

1913

United States

1920

Britain

1928

France

1945

Belgium

1946

Switzerland

1971

Kuwait

2006

This spread of dates through the twentieth century is a gauge of
the shifting Zeitgeist. Another is our attitude to race. In the early
part of the twentieth century, almost everybody in Britain (and
many other countries too) would be judged racist by today's

2 6 6 T H 1- (• O V> I) F I. U s I O N
standards. Most white people believed that black people (in which
category they would have lumped the very diverse Africans with
unrelated groups from India, Australia and Melanesia) were inferior
to white people in almost all respects except - patronizingly - sense
of rhythm. The 1920s equivalent of James Bond was that cheerfully
debonair boyhood hero, Bulldog Drummond. In one novel, The

Black Gang, Drummond refers to 'Jews, foreigners, and other
unwashed folk'. In the climax scene of The Female of the Species,

Drummond is cleverly disguised as Pedro, black servant of the arch-
villain. For his dramatic disclosure, to the reader as well as to
the villain, that 'Pedro' is really Drummond himself, he could have
said: 'You think I am Pedro. Little do you realize, I am your arch-
enemy Drummond, blacked up.' Instead, he chose these words:

'Every beard is not false, but every nigger smells. That beard ain't
false, dearie, and dis nigger don't smell. So I'm thinking, there's
something wrong somewhere.' I read it in the 1950s, three decades
after it was written, and it was (just) still possible for a boy to thrill
to the drama and not notice the racism. Nowadays, it would be
inconceivable.

Thomas Henry Huxley, by the standards of his times, was an
enlightened and liberal progressive. But his times were not ours,
and in 1871 he wrote the following:

No rational man, cognizant of the facts, believes that the
average negro is the equal, still less the superior, of
the white man. And if this be true, it is simply incredible
that, when all his disabilities are removed, and our
prognathous relative has a fair field and no favor, as well
as no oppressor, he will be able to compete successfully
with his bigger-brained and smaller-jawed rival, in a
contest which is to be carried on by thoughts and not by
bites. The highest places in the hierarchy of civilization
will assuredly not be within the reach of our dusky
cousins.104

It is a commonplace that good historians don't judge statements
from past times by the standards of their own. Abraham Lincoln,
like Huxley, was ahead of his time, yet his views on matters of race

1 M I. • C; O ( ) I ) ' B O O K A N D 1 !! F. .VI O R A L. Z I: / T (, V. I S 7 2 6 7
also sound backwardly racist in ours. Here he is in a debate in 1858
with Stephen A. Douglas:

I will say, then, that I am not, nor ever have been, in favor
of bringing about in any way the social and political
equality of the white and black races; that I am not, nor
ever have been, in favor of making voters or jurors of
negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to
intermarry with white people; and I will say, in addition
to this, that there is a physical difference between the
white and black races which I believe will forever forbid
the two races living together on terms of social and
political equality. And in as much as they cannot so live,
while they do remain together there must be the position
of superior and inferior, and I as much as any other man
am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the
white race.105

Had Huxley and Lincoln been born and educated in our time,
they would have been the first to cringe with the rest of us at their
own Victorian sentiments and unctuous tone. I quote them only to
illustrate how the Zeitgeist moves on. If even Huxley, one of
the great liberal minds of his age, and even Lincoln, who freed the
slaves, could say such things, just think what the average Victorian
must have thought. Going back to the eighteenth century it is, of
course, well known that Washington, Jefferson and other men of
the Enlightenment held slaves. The Zeitgeist moves on, so
inexorably that we sometimes take it for granted and forget that the
change is a real phenomenon in its own right.

There are numerous other examples. When the sailors first
landed in Mauritius and saw the gentle dodos, it never occurred to
them to do anything other than club them to death. They didn't
even want to eat them (they were described as unpalatable).

Presumably, hitting defenceless, tame, flightless birds over the head
with a club was just something to do. Nowadays such behaviour
would be unthinkable, and the extinction of a modern equivalent of
the dodo, even by accident, let alone by deliberate human killing, is
regarded as a tragedy.

268 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Just such a tragedy, by the standards of today's cultural climate,
was the more recent extinction of Thylacinus, the Tasmanian wolf.

These now iconically lamented creatures had a bounty on their
heads until as recently as 1909. In Victorian novels of Africa,

'elephant', 'lion' and 'antelope' (note the revealing singular) are

'game' and what you do to game, without a second thought, is
shoot it. Not for food. Not for self-defence. For 'sport'. But now
the Zeitgeist has changed. Admittedly, rich, sedentary 'sportsmen'

may shoot wild African animals from the safety of a Land-Rover
and take the stuffed heads back home. But they have to pay
through the nose to do so, and are widely despised for it. Wildlife
conservation and the conservation of the environment have become
accepted values with the same moral status as was once accorded
to keeping the sabbath and shunning graven images.

The swinging sixties are legendary for their liberal modernity.

But at the beginning of that decade a prosecuting barrister, in the
trial for obscenity of Lady Cbatterley's Lover, could still ask
the jury: 'Would you approve of your young sons, young daughters

- because girls can read as well as boys [can you believe he said
that?] - reading this book? Is it a book you would have lying
around in your own house? Is it a book you would even wish your
wife or your servants to read?' This last rhetorical question is a
particularly stunning illustration of the speed with which the

Zeitgeist changes.

The American invasion of Iraq is widely condemned for its
civilian casualties, yet these casualty figures are orders of
magnitude lower than comparable numbers for the Second World

War. There seems to be a steadily shifting standard of what is
morally acceptable. Donald Rumsfeld, who sounds so callous and
odious today, would have sounded like a bleeding-heart liberal if he
had said the same things during the Second World War. Something
has shifted in the intervening decades. It has shifted in all of us, and
the shift has no connection with religion. If anything, it happens in
spite of religion, not because of it.

The shift is in a recognizably consistent direction, which most of
us would judge as improvement. Even Adolf Hitler, widely regarded
as pushing the envelope of evil into uncharted territory, would not
have stood out in the time of Caligula or of Genghis Khan. Hitler

T H E ' G ( ) O I ) ' B O O K A N D T ! I ! M O R A I / /: / 7 ' ( 7 t I S 7 ' 2 6 9
no doubt killed more people than Genghis, but he had twentieth-
century technology at his disposal. And did even Hitler gain his
greatest pleasure, as Genghis avowedly did, from seeing his victims'

'near and dear bathed in tears'? We judge Hitler's degree of evil by
the standards of today, and the moral Zeitgeist has moved on since

Caligula's time, just as the technology has. Hitler seems especially
evil only by the more benign standards of our time.

Within my lifetime, large numbers of people thoughtlessly
bandied derogatory nicknames and national stereotypes: Frog,

Wop, Dago, Hun, Yid, Coon, Nip, Wog. I won't claim that such
words have disappeared, but they are now widely deplored in polite
circles. The word 'negro', even though not intended to be insulting,
can be used to date a piece of English prose. Prejudices are indeed
revealing giveaways of the date of a piece of writing. In his own
time, a respected Cambridge theologian, A. C. Bouquet, was able to
begin the chapter on Islam of his Comparative Religion with these
words: 'The Semite is not a natural monotheist, as was supposed
about the middle of the nineteenth century. He is an animist.' The
obsession with race (as opposed to culture) and the revealing use of
the singular ('The Semite . . . He is an animist') to reduce an entire
plurality of people to one 'type' are not heinous by any standards.

But they are another tiny indicator of the changing Zeitgeist. No

Cambridge professor of theology or any other subject would today
use those words. Such subtle hints of changing mores tell us that

Bouquet was writing no later than the middle of the twentieth
century. It was in fact 1941.

Go back another four decades, and the changing standards
become unmistakeable. In a previous book I quoted H. G. Wells's

Utopian New Republic, and I shall do so again because it is such a
shocking illustration of the point I am making.

And how will the New Republic treat the inferior races?

How will it deal with the black? . . . the yellow man? . . .

the Jew? . . . those swarms of black, and brown, and dirty-
white, and yellow people, who do not come into the new
needs of efficiency? Well, the world is a world, and not a
charitable institution, and I take it they will have to go . . .

And the ethical system of these men of the New Republic,

270 i H r c; o !) i) 1; i. u s i o x
the ethical system which will dominate the world state,
will be shaped primarily to favour the procreation of what
is fine and efficient and beautiful in humanity - beautiful
and strong bodies, clear and powerful minds . . . And the
method that nature has followed hitherto in the shaping
of the world, whereby weakness was prevented from
propagating weakness . . . is death . . . The men of the

New Republic . . . will have an ideal that will make
the killing worth the while.

That was written in 1902, and Wells was regarded as a progressive
in his own time. In 1902 such sentiments, while not widely agreed,
would have made for an acceptable dinner-party argument.

Modern readers, by contrast, literally gasp with horror when they
see the words. We are forced to realize that Hitler, appalling though
he was, was not quite as far outside the Zeitgeist of his time as he
seems from our vantage-point today. How swiftly the Zeitgeist
changes - and it moves in parallel, on a broad front, throughout the
educated world.

Where, then, have these concerted and steady changes in social
consciousness come from? The onus is not on me to answer. For my
purposes it is sufficient that they certainly have not come from
religion. If forced to advance a theory, I would approach it along
the following lines. We need to explain why the changing moral

Zeitgeist is so widely synchronized across large numbers of people;
and we need to explain its relatively consistent direction.

First, how is it synchronized across so many people? It spreads
itself from mind to mind through conversations in bars and at
dinner parties, through books and book reviews, through news-
papers and broadcasting, and nowadays through the Internet.

Changes in the moral climate are signalled in editorials, on radio
talk shows, in political speeches, in the patter of stand-up
comedians and the scripts of soap operas, in the votes of parlia-
ments making laws and the decisions of judges interpreting them.

One way to put it would be in terms of changing meme frequencies
in the meme pool, but I shall not pursue that.

Some of us lag behind the advancing wave of the changing moral

Zeitgeist and some of us are slightly ahead. But most of us in the

G O O I") ' B O O K A N D T 1 i I ,\! O R A I, '/I.I 7 < ; l:. I S i 2 7 1
twenty-first century are bunched together and way ahead of our
counterparts in the Middle Ages, or in the time of Abraham, or
even as recently as the 1920s. The whole wave keeps moving, and
even the vanguard of an earlier century (T. H. Huxley is the obvious
example) would find itself way behind the laggers of a later century.

Of course, the advance is not a smooth incline but a meandering
sawtooth. There are local and temporary setbacks such as the

United States is suffering from its government in the early 2000s.

But over the longer timescale, the progressive trend is unmistake-
able and it will continue.

What impels it in its consistent direction? We mustn't neglect the
driving role of individual leaders who, ahead of their time, stand up
and persuade the rest of us to move on with them. In America,
the ideals of racial equality were fostered by political leaders of the
calibre of Martin Luther King, and entertainers, sportsmen and
other public figures and role models such as Paul Robeson, Sidney

Poitier, Jesse Owens and Jackie Robinson. The emancipations of
slaves and of women owed much to charismatic leaders. Some
of these leaders were religious; some were not. Some who were
religious did their good deeds because they were religious. In other
cases their religion was incidental. Although Martin Luther King
was a Christian, he derived his philosophy of non-violent civil
disobedience directly from Gandhi, who was not.

Then, too, there is improved education and, in particular, the
increased understanding that each of us shares a common humanity
with members of other races and with the other sex - both deeply
unbiblical ideas that come from biological science, especially
evolution. One reason black people and women and, in Nazi

Germany, Jews and gypsies have been treated badly is that they
were not perceived as fully human. The philosopher Peter Singer, in

Animal Liberation, is the most eloquent advocate of the view that
we should move to a post-speciesist condition in which humane
treatment is meted out to all species that have the brain power to
appreciate it. Perhaps this hints at the direction in which the moral

Zeitgeist might move in future centuries. It would be a natural
extrapolation of earlier reforms like the abolition of slavery and the
emancipation of women.

It is beyond my amateur psychology and sociology to go any

272 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
further in explaining why the moral Zeitgeist moves in its broadly
concerted way. For my purposes it is enough that, as a matter of
observed fact, it does move, and it is not driven by religion - and
certainly not by scripture. It is probably not a single force like
gravity, but a complex interplay of disparate forces like the one that
propels Moore's Law, describing the exponential increase in
computer power. Whatever its cause, the manifest phenomenon of

Zeitgeist progression is more than enough to undermine the claim
that we need God in order to be good, or to decide what is good.

WHAT ABOUT HITLER AND STALIN?

WEREN'T THEY ATHEISTS?

The Zeitgeist may move, and move in a generally progressive direc-
tion, but as I have said it is a sawtooth not a smooth improvement,
and there have been some appalling reversals. Outstanding rever-
sals, deep and terrible ones, are provided by the dictators of the
twentieth century. It is important to separate the evil intentions of
men like Hitler and Stalin from the vast power that they wielded in
achieving them. I have already observed that Hitler's ideas and
intentions were not self-evidently more evil than those of Caligula

- or some of the Ottoman sultans, whose staggering feats of nasti-
ness are described in Noel Barber's Lords of the Golden Horn.

Hitler had twentieth-century weapons, and twentieth-century com-
munications technology at his disposal. Nevertheless, Hitler and

Stalin were, by any standards, spectacularly evil men.

'Hitler and Stalin were atheists. What have you got to say about
that?' The question comes up after just about every public lecture
that I ever give on the subject of religion, and in most of my radio
interviews as well. It is put in a truculent way, indignantly freighted
with two assumptions: not only (1) were Stalin and Hitler atheists,
but (2) they did their terrible deeds because they were
atheists. Assumption (1) is true for Stalin and dubious for Hitler.

But assumption (1) is irrelevant anyway, because assumption (2) is
false. It is certainly illogical if it is thought to follow from (1). Even

T H E ' G O O D " B O O K A N D T H E M O R A L Z E / f G £ / S 7 273
if we accept that Hitler and Stalin shared atheism in common, they
both also had moustaches, as does Saddam Hussein. So what? The
interesting question is not whether evil (or good) individual human
beings were religious or were atheists. We are not in the business of
counting evil heads and compiling two rival roll calls of iniquity.

The fact that Nazi belt buckles were inscribed with 'Gott mit uns'

doesn't prove anything, at least not without a lot more discussion.

What matters is not whether Hitler and Stalin were atheists, but
whether atheism systematically influences people to do bad things.

There is not the smallest evidence that it does.

There seems no doubt that, as a matter of fact, Stalin was an
atheist. He received his education at an Orthodox seminary, and his
mother never lost her disappointment that he had not entered the
priesthood as she intended - a fact that, according to Alan Bullock,
caused Stalin much amusement.106 Perhaps because of his training
for the priesthood, the mature Stalin was scathing about the

Russian Orthodox Church, and about Christianity and religion in
general. But there is no evidence that his atheism motivated his
brutality. His earlier religious training probably didn't either, unless
it was through teaching him to revere absolutist faith, strong
authority and a belief that ends justify means.

The legend that Hitler was an atheist has been assiduously
cultivated, so much so that a great many people believe it without
question, and it is regularly and defiantly trotted out by religious
apologists. The truth of the matter is far from clear. Hitler was born
into a Catholic family, and went to Catholic schools and churches
as a child. Obviously that is not significant in itself: he could easily
have given it up, as Stalin gave up his Russian Orthodoxy after
leaving the Tiflis Theological Seminary. But Hitler never formally
renounced his Catholicism, and there are indications throughout
his life that he remained religious. If not Catholic, he seems to have
retained a belief in some sort of divine providence. For example he
stated in Mein Kampf that, when he heard the news of the declar-
ation of the First World War, 'I sank down on my knees and
thanked Heaven out of the fullness of my heart for the favour of
having been permitted to live in such a time.'107 But that was 1914,
when he was still only twenty-five. Perhaps he changed after that?

In 1920, when Hitler was thirty-one, his close associate Rudolf

2 7 4 T i l h (", O D D E L U S I O N

Hess, later to be deputy Führer, wrote in a letter to the Prime

Minister of Bavaria, 'I know Herr Hitler very well personally and am
quite close to him. He has an unusually honourable character, full of
profound kindness, is religious, a good Catholic.'108 Of course, it
could be said that, since Hess got the 'honourable character' and the

'profound kindness' so crashingly wrong, maybe he got the 'good

Catholic' wrong too! Hitler could scarcely be described as a

'good' anything, which reminds me of the most comically audacious
argument I have heard in favour of the proposition that Hitler must
have been an atheist. Paraphrasing from many sources, Hitler was a
bad man, Christianity teaches goodness, therefore Hitler can't have
been a Christian! Goering's remark about Hitler, 'Only a Catholic
could unite Germany,' might, I suppose, have meant somebody
brought up Catholic rather than a believing Catholic.

In a speech of 1933 in Berlin, Hitler said, 'We were convinced
that the people need and require this faith. We have therefore
undertaken the fight against the atheistic movement, and that not
merely with a few theoretical declarations: we have stamped it
out.'109 That might indicate only that, like many others, Hitler

'believed in belief. But as late as 1941 he told his adjutant, General

Gerhard Engel, 'I shall remain a Catholic for ever.'

Even if he didn't remain a sincerely believing Christian, Hitler
would have to have been positively unusual not to have been in-
fluenced by the long Christian tradition of blaming Jews as

Christ-killers. In a speech in Munich in 1923, Hitler said, 'The first
thing to do is to rescue [Germany] from the Jew who is ruining our
country . . . We want to prevent our Germany from suffering, as

Another did, the death upon the Cross.'110 In his Adolf Hitler: The

Definitive Biography, John Toland wrote of Hitler's religious
position at the time of the 'final solution':

Still a member in good standing of the Church of Rome
despite detestation of its hierarchy, he carried within him
its teaching that the Jew was the killer of god. The
extermination, therefore, could be done without a twinge
of conscience since he was merely acting as the avenging
hand of god - so long as it was done impersonally, with-
out cruelty.

T I I I ' (, () O D ' H O ( ) K A X D ']' 1 i H M O R A t. 7. r. I f (, I: / .V 7 2 7 5

Christian hatred of Jews is not just a Catholic tradition. Martin

Luther was a virulent anti-Semite. At the Diet of Worms he said
that 'All Jews should be driven from Germany.' And he wrote a
whole book, On the Jews and their Lies, which probably influenced

Hitler. Luther described the Jews as a 'brood of vipers', and the
same phrase was used by Hitler in a remarkable speech of 1922, in
which he several times repeated that he was a Christian:

My feeling as a Christian points me to my Lord and

Saviour as a fighter. It points me to the man who once in
loneliness, surrounded by a few followers, recognized
these Jews for what they were and summoned men to fight
against them and who, God's truth! was greatest not as a
sufferer but as a fighter. In boundless love as a Christian
and as a man I read through the passage which tells us
how the Lord at last rose in His might and seized the
scourge to drive out of the Temple the brood of vipers and
adders. How terrific was His fight for the world against
the Jewish poison. To-day, after two thousand years, with
deepest emotion I recognize more profoundly than ever
before the fact that it was for this that He had to shed His
blood upon the Cross. As a Christian 1 have no duty to
allow myself to be cheated, but I have the duty to be a
fighter for truth and justice . . . And if there is anything
which could demonstrate that we are acting rightly it is
the distress that daily grows. For as a Christian I have also
a duty to my own people.111

It is hard to know whether Hitler picked up the phrase 'brood
of vipers' from Luther, or whether he got it directly from Matthew

3: 7, as Luther presumably did. As for the theme of Jewish
persecution as part of God's will, Hitler returned to it in Mein

Kampf: 'Hence today I believe that I am acting in accordance with
the will of the Almighty Creator: by defending myself against the

Jew, I am fighting for the work of the Lord." That was 1925. He
said it again in a speech in the Reichstag in 1938, and he said
similar things throughout his career.

Quotations like those have to be balanced by others from his

2 7 6 T H E C; O U D E L U S I G N

Table Talk, in which Hitler expressed virulently anti-Christian views,
as recorded by his secretary. The following all date from 1941:

The heaviest blow that ever struck humanity was the
coming of Christianity. Bolshevism is Christianity's
illegitimate child. Both are inventions of the Jew. The
deliberate lie in the matter of religion was introduced into
the world by Christianity . . .

The reason why the ancient world was so pure, light and
serene was that it knew nothing of the two great scourges:

the pox and Christianity.

When all is said, we have no reason to wish that the

Italians and Spaniards should free themselves from
the drug of Christianity. Let's be the only people who are
immunised against the disease.

Hitler's Table Talk contains more quotations like those, often
equating Christianity with Bolshevism, sometimes drawing an
analogy between Karl Marx and St Paul and never forgetting that
both were Jews (though Hitler, oddly, was always adamant that

Jesus himself was not a Jew). It is possible that Hitler had by 1941
experienced some kind of deconversion or disillusionment with

Christianity. Or is the resolution of the contradictions simply that
he was an opportunistic liar whose words cannot be trusted, in
either direction?

It could be argued that, despite his own words and those of his
associates, Hitler was not really religious but just cynically exploit-
ing the religiosity of his audience. He may have agreed with

Napoleon, who said, 'Religion is excellent stuff for keeping
common people quiet,' and with Seneca the Younger: 'Religion is
regarded by the common people as true, by the wise as false, and
by the rulers as useful.' Nobody could deny that Hitler was capable
of such insincerity. If this was his real motive for pretending to be
religious, it serves to remind us that Hitler didn't carry out his
atrocities single-handed. The terrible deeds themselves were carried
out by soldiers and their officers, most of whom were surely

Christian. Indeed, the Christianity of the German people underlies

T H H ' G O ( ) D ' B O O K A N D T I I I- M O R A L Z E / T G /:.' / S T 2 7 7
the very hypothesis we are discussing - a hypothesis to explain the
supposed insincerity of Hitler's religious professings! Or, perhaps

Hitler felt that he had to display some token sympathy for

Christianity, otherwise his regime would not have received the
support it did from the Church. This support showed itself in
various ways, including Pope Pius XIIs persistent refusal to take a
stand against the Nazis - a subject of considerable embarrassment
to the modern Church. Either Hitler's professions of Christianity
were sincere, or he faked his Christianity in order to win - success-
fully - co-operation from German Christians and the Catholic

Church. In either case, the evils of Hitler's regime can hardly be
held up as flowing from atheism.

Even when he was railing against Christianity, Hitler never
ceased using the language of Providence: a mysterious agency
which, he believed, had singled him out for a divine mission to lead

Germany. He sometimes called it Providence, at other times God.

After the Anschluss, when Hitler returned in triumph to Vienna in

1938, his exultant speech mentioned God in this providential guise:

'I believe it was God's will to send a boy from here into the Reich,
to let him grow up and to raise him to be the leader of the nation
so that he could lead back his homeland into the Reich.'112

When he narrowly escaped assassination in Munich in

November 1939, Hitler credited Providence with intervening to
save his life by causing him to alter his schedule: 'Now I am com-
pletely content. The fact that I left the Biirgerbraukeller earlier than
usual is a corroboration of Providence's intention to let me reach
my goal.'113 After this failed assassination the Archbishop of

Munich, Cardinal Michael Faulhaber, ordered that a Te Deum
should be said in his cathedral, 'To thank Divine Providence in the
name of the archdiocese for the Fiihrer's fortunate escape.' Some of

Hitler's followers, with the support of Goebbels, made no bones
about building Nazism into a religion in its own right. The follow-
ing, by the chief of the united trade unions, has the feel of a prayer,
and even has the cadences of the Christian Lord's Prayer ('Our

Father') or the Creed:

Adolf Hitler! We are united with you alone! We want to
renew our vow in this hour: On this earth we believe only

2 7 8 T If H (. () D D E L U S I G N
in Adolf Hitler. We believe that National Socialism is the
sole saving faith for our people. We believe that there is a

Lord God in heaven, who created us, who leads us, who
directs us and who blesses us visibly. And we believe that
this Lord God sent Adolf Hitler to us, so that Germany
might become a foundation for all eternity.114

Stalin was an atheist and Hitler probably wasn't; but even if he
was, the bottom line of the Stalin/Hitler debating point is very
simple. Individual atheists may do evil things but they don't do evil
things in the name of atheism. Stalin and Hitler did extremely
evil things, in the name of, respectively, dogmatic and doctrinaire

Marxism, and an insane and unscientific eugenics theory tinged
with sub-Wagnerian ravings. Religious wars really are fought in the
name of religion, and they have been horribly frequent in history. I
cannot think of any war that has been fought in the name of
atheism. Why should it? A war might be motivated by economic
greed, by political ambition, by ethnic or racial prejudice, by deep
grievance or revenge, or by patriotic belief in the destiny of a
nation. Even more plausible as a motive for war is an unshakeable
faith that one's own religion is the only true one, reinforced by a
holy book that explicitly condemns all heretics and followers of
rival religions to death, and explicitly promises that the soldiers
of God will go straight to a martyrs' heaven. Sam Harris, as so
often, hits the bullseye, in The End of Faith:

The danger of religious faith is that it allows otherwise
normal human beings to reap the fruits of madness and
consider them holy. Because each new generation of
children is taught that religious propositions need not be
justified in the way that all others must, civilization is still
besieged by the armies of the preposterous. We are, even
now, killing ourselves over ancient literature. Who would
have thought something so tragically absurd could be
possible?

By contrast, why would anyone go to war for the sake of an
absence of belief?

CHAPTER 8

What's wrong with
religion? Why be so
hostile?

Religion has actually convinced people that there's an invisible
man - living in the sky - who watches everything you do, every
minute of every day. And the invisible man has a special list of ten
things he does not want you to do. And if you do any of these ten
things, he has a special place, full of fire and smoke and burning
and torture and anguish, where he will send you to live and suffer
and burn and choke and scream and cry forever and ever 'til the
end of time . . . But He loves you!

GEORGE CARLIN

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H RE L I G I O N ? 281

I do not, by nature, thrive on confrontation. I don't think the
adversarial format is well designed to get at the truth, and I
regularly refuse invitations to take part in formal debates. I was
once invited to debate with the then Archbishop of York, in

Edinburgh. I felt honoured by this, and accepted. After the debate,
the religious physicist Russell Stannard reproduced in his book

Doing Away with God? a letter that he wrote to the Observer:

Sir, Under the gleeful headline 'God comes a poor Second
before the Majesty of Science', your science correspondent
reported (on Easter Sunday of all days) how Richard

Dawkins 'inflicted grievous intellectual harm' on the

Archbishop of York in a debate on science and religion.

We were told of 'smugly smiling atheists' and 'Lions 10;

Christians nil'.

Stannard went on to chide the Observer for failing to report a sub-
sequent encounter between him and me, together with the Bishop
of Birmingham and the distinguished cosmologist Sir Hermann

Bondi, at the Royal Society, which had not been staged as an
adversarial debate, and which had been a lot more constructive as
a result. I can only agree with his implied condemnation of the
adversarial debate format. In particular, for reasons explained in A

Devil's Chaplain, I never take part in debates with creationists.*

Despite my dislike of gladiatorial contests, I seem somehow to
have acquired a reputation for pugnacity towards religion.

Colleagues who agree that there is no God, who agree that we do
not need religion to be moral, and agree that we can explain the
roots of religion and of morality in non-religious terms, never-
theless come back at me in gentle puzzlement. Why are you so
hostile? What is actually wrong with religion? Does it really do so
much harm that we should actively fight against it? Why not
live and let live, as one does with Taurus and Scorpio, crystal ene.rgy
and ley lines? Isn't it all just harmless nonsense?

I might retort that such hostility as I or other atheists occasion-
ally voice towards religion is limited to words. I am not going to

* I do not have the chutzpah to refuse on the grounds offered by one of my most
distinguished scientific colleagues, whenever a creationist tries to stage a formal
debate with him (I shall not name him, but his words should be read in an

Australian accent): 'That would look great on your CV; not so good on mine.'

282 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
bomb anybody, behead them, stone them, burn them at the stake,
crucify them, or fly planes into their skyscrapers, just because of a
theological disagreement. But my interlocutor usually doesn't leave
it at that. He may go on to say something like this: 'Doesn't your
hostility mark you out as a fundamentalist atheist, just as funda-
mentalist in your own way as the wingnuts of the Bible Belt in
theirs?' I need to dispose of this accusation of fundamentalism, for
it is distressingly common.

FUNDAMENTALISM AND THE

SUBVERSION OF SCIENCE

Fundamentalists know they are right because they have read the
truth in a holy book and they know, in advance, that nothing will
budge them from their belief. The truth of the holy book is an
axiom, not the end product of a process of reasoning. The book is
true, and if the evidence seems to contradict it, it is the evidence
that must be thrown out, not the book. By contrast, what I, as a
scientist, believe (for example, evolution) I believe not because of
reading a holy book but because I have studied the evidence. It
really is a very different matter. Books about evolution are believed
not because they are holy. They are believed because they present
overwhelming quantities of mutually buttressed evidence. In
principle, any reader can go and check that evidence. When a
science book is wrong, somebody eventually discovers the mistake
and it is corrected in subsequent books. That conspicuously doesn't
happen with holy books.

Philosophers, especially amateurs with a little philosophical
learning, and even more especially those infected with 'cultural
relativism', may raise a tiresome red herring at this point: a
scientist's belief in evidence is itself a matter of fundamentalist faith.

I have dealt with this elsewhere, and will only briefly repeat myself
here. All of us believe in evidence in our own lives, whatever we
may profess with our amateur philosophical hats on. If I am
accused of murder, and prosecuting counsel sternly asks me

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 283
whether it is true that I was in Chicago on the night of the crime, I
cannot get away with a philosophical evasion: 'It depends what you
mean by "true".' Nor with an anthropological, relativist plea: 'It is
only in your Western scientific sense of "in" that I was in Chicago.

The Bongolese have a completely different concept of "in", accord-
ing to which you are only truly "in" a place if you are an anointed
elder entitled to take snuff from the dried scrotum of a goat.'115

Maybe scientists are fundamentalist when it comes to defining in
some abstract way what is meant by 'truth'. But so is everybody
else. I am no more fundamentalist when I say evolution is true than
when I say it is true that New Zealand is in the southern
hemisphere. We believe in evolution because the evidence supports
it, and we would abandon it overnight if new evidence arose to dis-
prove it. No real fundamentalist would ever say anything like that.

It is all too easy to confuse fundamentalism with passion. I may
well appear passionate when I defend evolution against a funda-
mentalist creationist, but this is not because of a rival
fundamentalism of my own. It is because the evidence for evolution
is overwhelmingly strong and I am passionately distressed that my
opponent can't see it - or, more usually, refuses to look at it because
it contradicts his holy book. My passion is increased when I think
about how much the poor fundamentalists, and those whom they
influence, are missing. The truths of evolution, along with many
other scientific truths, are so engrossingly fascinating and beautiful;
how truly tragic to die having missed out on all that! Of course that
makes me passionate. How could it not? But my belief in evolution
is not fundamentalism, and it is not faith, because I know what it
would take to change my mind, and I would gladly do so if the
necessary evidence were forthcoming.

It does happen. I have previously told the story of a respected
elder statesman of the Zoology Department at Oxford when I was
an undergraduate. For years he had passionately believed, and
taught, that the Golgi Apparatus (a microscopic feature of the
interior of cells) was not real: an artefact, an illusion. Every

Monday afternoon it was the custom for the whole department to
listen to a research talk by a visiting lecturer. One Monday, the
visitor was an American cell biologist who presented completely
convincing evidence that the Golgi Apparatus was real. At the end

284 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
of the lecture, the old man strode to the front of the hall, shook the

American by the hand and said - with passion - 'My dear fellow, I
wish to thank you. I have been wrong these fifteen years.' We
clapped our hands red. No fundamentalist would ever say that.

In practice, not all scientists would. But all scientists pay lip service
to it as an ideal - unlike, say, politicians who would probably
condemn it as flip-flopping. The memory of the incident I
have described still brings a lump to my throat.

As a scientist, I am hostile to fundamentalist religion because it
actively debauches the scientific enterprise. It teaches us not to
change our minds, and not to want to know exciting things that are
available to be known. It subverts science and saps the intellect. The
saddest example I know is that of the American geologist Kurt

Wise, who now directs the Center for Origins Research at Bryan

College, Dayton, Tennessee. It is no accident that Bryan College is
named after William Jennings Bryan, prosecutor of the science
teacher John Scopes in the Dayton 'Monkey Trial' of 1925. Wise
could have fulfilled his boyhood ambition to become a professor of
geology at a real university, a university whose motto might have
been 'Think critically' rather than the oxymoronic one displayed on
the Bryan website: 'Think critically and biblically'. Indeed, he
obtained a real degree in geology at the University of Chicago,
followed by two higher degrees in geology and paleontology at

Harvard (no less) where he studied under Stephen Jay Gould (no
less). He was a highly qualified and genuinely promising young
scientist, well on his way to achieving his dream of teaching science
and doing research at a proper university.

Then tragedy struck. It came, not from outside but from within
his own mind, a mind fatally subverted and weakened by a funda-
mentalist religious upbringing that required him to believe that the

Earth - the subject of his Chicago and Harvard geological education

- was less than ten thousand years old. He was too intelligent not to
recognize the head-on collision between his religion and his science,
and the conflict in his mind made him increasingly uneasy. One day,
he could bear the strain no more, and he clinched the matter with
a pair of scissors. He took a bible and went right through it, liter-
ally cutting out every verse that would have to go if the scientific
world-view were true. At the end of this ruthlessly honest and

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 285
labour-intensive exercise, there was so little left of his bible that,
try as I might, and even with the benefit of intact margins
throughout the pages of Scripture, I found it impossible to
pick up the Bible without it being rent in two. I had to
make a decision between evolution and Scripture. Either
the Scripture was true and evolution was wrong or
evolution was true and I must toss out the Bible . . . It was
there that night that I accepted the Word of God and
rejected all that would ever counter it, including
evolution. With that, in great sorrow, I tossed into the fire
all my dreams and hopes in science.

I find that terribly sad; but whereas the Golgi Apparatus story
moved me to tears of admiration and exultation, the Kurt Wise
story is just plain pathetic - pathetic and contemptible. The wound,
to his career and his life's happiness, was self-inflicted, so un-
necessary, so easy to escape. All he had to do was toss out the bible.

Or interpret it symbolically, or allegorically, as the theologians do.

Instead, he did the fundamentalist thing and tossed out science,
evidence and reason, along with all his dreams and hopes.

Perhaps uniquely among fundamentalists, Kurt Wise is honest -
devastatingly, painfully, shockingly honest. Give him the Templeton

Prize; he might be the first really sincere recipient. Wise brings to
the surface what is secretly going on underneath, in the minds of
fundamentalists generally, when they encounter scientific evidence
that contradicts their beliefs. Listen to his peroration:

Although there are scientific reasons for accepting a
young earth, I am a young-age creationist because that is
my understanding of the Scripture. As I shared with my
professors years ago when I was in college, if all the
evidence in the universe turns against creationism, I would
be the first to admit it, but I would still be a creationist
because that is what the Word of God seems to indicate.

Here I must stand.116

He seems to be quoting Luther as he nailed his theses to the door

286 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
of the church in Wittenberg, but poor Kurt Wise reminds me
more of Winston Smith in 1984 - struggling desperately to believe
that two plus two equals five if Big Brother says it does. Winston,
however, was being tortured. Wise's doublethink comes not from
the imperative of physical torture but from the imperative -
apparently just as undeniable to some people - of religious faith:

arguably a form of mental torture. I am hostile to religion because
of what it did to Kurt Wise. And if it did that to a Harvard-
educated geologist, just think what it can do to others less gifted
and less well armed.

Fundamentalist religion is hell-bent on ruining the scientific
education of countless thousands of innocent, well-meaning, eager
young minds. Non-fundamentalist, 'sensible' religion may not be
doing that. But it is making the world safe for fundamentalism by
teaching children, from their earliest years, that unquestioning faith
is a virtue.

THE DARK SIDE OF ABSOLUTISM

In the previous chapter, when trying to explain the shifting moral

Zeitgeist, I invoked a widespread consensus of liberal, enlightened,
decent people. I made the rosy-spectacled assumption that 'we' all
broadly agree with this consensus, some more than others, and I
had in mind most of the people likely to read this book, whether
they are religious or not. But of course, not everybody is of the
consensus (and not everybody will have any desire to read my
book). It has to be admitted that absolutism is far from dead.

Indeed, it rules the minds of a great number of people in the world
today, most dangerously so in the Muslim world and in the
incipient American theocracy (see Kevin Phillips's book of that
name). Such absolutism nearly always results from strong religious
faith, and it constitutes a major reason for suggesting that religion
can be a force for evil in the world.

One of the fiercest penalties in the Old Testament is the one
exacted for blasphemy. It is still in force in certain countries.

Section 295-C of the Pakistan penal code prescribes the death

W H A T ' S W R O N G "WITH R E L I G I O N ? 287
penalty for this 'crime'. On 18 August 2001, Dr Younis Shaikh, a
medical doctor and lecturer, was sentenced to death for blasphemy.

His particular crime was to tell students that the prophet

Muhammad was not a Muslim before he invented the religion at
the age of forty. Eleven of his students reported him to the
authorities for this 'offence'. The blasphemy law in Pakistan is
more usually invoked against Christians, such as Augustine Ashiq

'Kingri' Masih, who was sentenced to death in Faisalabad in 2000.

Masih, as a Christian, was not allowed to marry his sweetheart
because she was a Muslim and - incredibly - Pakistani (and

Islamic) law does not allow a Muslim woman to marry a non-

Muslim man. So he tried to convert to Islam and was then accused
of doing so for base motives. It is not clear from the report I have
read whether this in itself was the capital crime, or whether it was
something he is alleged to have said about the prophet's own
morals. Either way, it certainly was not the kind of offence that
would warrant a death sentence in any country whose laws are free
of religious bigotry.

In 2006 in Afghanistan, Abdul Rahman was sentenced to death
for converting to Christianity. Did he kill anyone, hurt anybody,
steal anything, damage anything? No. All he did was change his
mind. Internally and privately, he changed his mind. He entertained
certain thoughts which were not to the liking of the ruling party of
his country. And this, remember, is not the Afghanistan of the

Taliban but the 'liberated' Afghanistan of Hamid Karzai, set up by
the American-led coalition. Mr Rahman finally escaped execution,
but only on a plea of insanity, and only after intense international
pressure. He has now sought asylum in Italy, to avoid being
murdered by zealots eager to do their Islamic duty. It is still an
article of the constitution of 'liberated' Afghanistan that the penalty
for apostasy is death. Apostasy, remember, doesn't mean actual
harm to persons or property. It is pure thoughtcrime, to use George

Orwell's 1984 terminology, and the official punishment for it under

Islamic law is death. On 3 September 1992, to take one example
where it was actually carried out, Sadiq Abdul Karim Malallah was
publicly beheaded in Saudi Arabia after being lawfully convicted of
apostasy and blasphemy.117

I once had a televised encounter with Sir Iqbal Sacranie,

288 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
mentioned in Chapter 1 as Britain's leading 'moderate' Muslim. I
challenged him on the death penalty as punishment for apostasy.

He wriggled and squirmed, but was unable either to deny or decry
it. He kept trying to change the subject, saying it was an un-
important detail. This is a man who has been knighted by the

British government for promoting good 'interfaith relations'.

But let's have no complacency in Christendom. As recently as

1922 in Britain, John William Gott was sentenced to nine months'

hard labour for blasphemy: he compared Jesus to a clown. Almost
unbelievably, the crime of blasphemy is still on the statute book in

Britain,118 and in 2005 a Christian group tried to bring a private
prosecution for blasphemy against the BBC for broadcasting Jerry

Springer, the Opera.

In the United States of recent years the phrase 'American

Taliban' was begging to be coined, and a swift Google search nets
more than a dozen websites that have done so. The quotations that
they anthologize, from American religious leaders and faith-based
politicians, chillingly recall the narrow bigotry, heartless cruelty
and sheer nastiness of the Afghan Taliban, the Ayatollah Khomeini
and the Wahhabi authorities of Saudi Arabia. The web page called

'The American Taliban' is a particularly rich source of obnoxiously
barmy quotations, beginning with a prize one from somebody
called Ann Coulter who, American colleagues have persuaded me,
is not a spoof, invented by The Onion: 'We should invade their
countries, kill their leaders and convert them to Christianity.'119

Other gems include Congressman Bob Dornan's 'Don't use the
word "gay" unless it's an acronym for "Got Aids Yet?"', General

William G. Boykin's 'George Bush was not elected by a majority of
the voters in the United States, he was appointed by God' - and an
older one, the famous environmental policy of Ronald Reagan's

Secretary of the Interior: 'We don't have to protect the environment,
the Second Coming is at hand.' The Afghan Taliban and the American

Taliban are good examples of what happens when people take their
scriptures literally and seriously. They provide a horrifying modern
enactment of what life might have been like under the theocracy of
the Old Testament. Kimberly Blaker's The Fundamentals of

Extremism: The Christian Right in America is a book-length expose
of the menace of the Christian Taliban (not under that name).

W H A T ' S WR O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 2 8 9

FAITH AND HOMOSEXUALITY

In Afghanistan under the Taliban, the official punishment for
homosexuality was execution, by the tasteful method of burial alive
under a wall pushed over on top of the victim. The 'crime' itself
being a private act, performed by consenting adults who were doing
nobody else any harm, we again have here the classic hallmark of
religious absolutism. My own country has no right to be smug.

Private homosexuality was a criminal offence in Britain up until -
astonishingly - 1967. In 1954 the British mathematician Alan

Turing, a candidate along with John von Neumann for the title of
father of the computer, committed suicide after being convicted
of the criminal offence of homosexual behaviour in private.

Admittedly Turing was not buried alive under a wall pushed over
by a tank. He was offered a choice between two years in prison

(you can imagine how the other prisoners would have treated him)

and a course of hormone injections which could be said to amount
to chemical castration, and would have caused him to grow breasts.

His final, private choice was an apple that he had injected with
cyanide.120

As the pivotal intellect in the breaking of the German Enigma
codes, Turing arguably made a greater contribution to defeating the

Nazis than Eisenhower or Churchill. Thanks to Turing and his

'Ultra' colleagues at Bletchley Park, Allied generals in the field were
consistently, over long periods of the war, privy to detailed German
plans before the German generals had time to implement them.

After the war, when Turing's role was no longer top secret, he
should have been knighted and feted as a saviour of his nation.

Instead, this gentle, stammering, eccentric genius was destroyed, for
a 'crime', committed in private, which harmed nobody. Once again,
the unmistakable trademark of the faith-based moralizer is to care
passionately about what other people do (or even think) in private.

The attitude of the 'American Taliban' towards homosexuality
epitomizes their religious absolutism. Listen to the Reverend Jerry

Falwell, founder of Liberty University: 'AIDS is not just God's
punishment for homosexuals; it is God's punishment for the society
that tolerates homosexuals.'121 The thing I notice first about such

290 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
people is their wonderful Christian charity. What kind of an
electorate could, term after term, vote in a man of such ill-informed
bigotry as Senator Jesse Helms, Republican of North Carolina? A
man who has sneered: 'The New York Times and Washington Post
are both infested with homosexuals themselves. Just about every
person down there is a homosexual or lesbian.'122 The answer, I
suppose, is the kind of electorate that sees morality in narrowly
religious terms and feels threatened by anybody who doesn't share
the same absolutist faith.

I have already quoted Pat Robertson, founder of the Christian

Coalition. He stood as a serious candidate for the Republican party
nomination for President in 1988, and garnered more than three
million volunteers to work in his campaign, plus a comparable
quantity of money: a disquieting level of support, given that the
following quotations are entirely typical of him: '[Homosexuals]

want to come into churches and disrupt church services and throw
blood all around and try to give people AIDS and spit in the face of
ministers.' '[Planned Parenthood] is teaching kids to fornicate,
teaching people to have adultery, every kind of bestiality, homo-
sexuality, lesbianism - everything that the Bible condemns.'

Robertson's attitude to women, too, would warm the black hearts
of the Afghan Taliban: 'I know this is painful for the ladies to hear,
but if you get married, you have accepted the headship of a man,
your husband. Christ is the head of the household and the husband
is the head of the wife, and that's the way it is, period.'

Gary Potter, President of Catholics for Christian Political

Action, had this to say: 'When the Christian majority takes over
this country, there will be no satanic churches, no more free distri-
bution of pornography, no more talk of rights for homosexuals.

After the Christian majority takes control, pluralism will be seen as
immoral and evil and the state will not permit anybody the right to
practice evil.' 'Evil', as is very clear from the quotation, doesn't
mean doing things that have bad consequences for people. It means
private thoughts and actions that are not to 'the Christian
majority's' private liking.

Pastor Fred Phelps, of the Westboro Baptist Church, is another
strong preacher with an obsessive dislike of homosexuals. When

Martin Luther King's widow died, Pastor Fred organized a picket

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 291
of her funeral, proclaiming: 'God Hates Fags &C Fag-Enablers!

Ergo, God hates Coretta Scott King and is now tormenting her with
fire and brimstone where the worm never dies and the fire is never
quenched, and the smoke of her torment ascendeth up for ever and
ever.'123 It is easy to write Fred Phelps off as a nut, but he has plenty
of support from people and their money. According to his own
website, Phelps has organized 22,000 anti-homosexual demon-
strations since 1991 (that's an average of one every four days) in the

USA, Canada, Jordan and Iraq, displaying slogans such as

'THANK GOD FOR AIDS'. A particularly charming feature of his
website is the automated tally of the number of days a particular,
named, deceased homosexual has been burning in hell.

Attitudes to homosexuality reveal much about the sort of
morality that is inspired by religious faith. An equally instructive
example is abortion and the sanctity of human life.

FAITH AND THE SANCTITY OF HUMAN LIFE

Human embryos are examples of human life. Therefore, by
absolutist religious lights, abortion is simply wrong: full-fledged
murder. I am not sure what to make of my admittedly anecdotal
observation that many of those who most ardently oppose the
taking of embryonic life also seem to be more than usually
enthusiastic about taking adult life. To be fair, this does not, as a
rule, apply to Roman Catholics, who are among the most
vociferous opponents of abortion. The born-again George W.

Bush, however, is typical of today's religious ascendancy. He, and
they, are stalwart defenders of human life, as long as it is embryonic
life (or terminally ill life) - even to the point of preventing medical
research that would certainly save many lives.124 The obvious
ground for opposing the death penalty is respect for human life.

Since 1976, when the Supreme Court reversed the ban on the death
penalty, Texas has been responsible for more than one-third of all
executions in all fifty states of the Union. And Bush presided over
more executions in Texas than any other governor in the state's
history, averaging one death every nine days. Perhaps he was simply

292 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
doing his duty and carrying out the laws of the state?125 But then,
what are we to make of the famous report by the CNN journalist

Tucker Carlson? Carlson, who himself supports the death penalty,
was shocked by Bush's 'humorous' imitation of a female prisoner
on death row, pleading to the Governor for a stay of execution:

' "Please," Bush whimpers, his lips pursed in mock desperation,

"Don't kill me."'126 Perhaps this woman would have met with
more sympathy if she had pointed out that she had once been an
embryo. The contemplation of embryos really does seem to have
the most extraordinary effect upon many people of faith. Mother

Teresa of Calcutta actually said, in her speech accepting the Nobel

Peace Prize, 'The greatest destroyer of peace is abortion.' What?

How can a woman with such cock-eyed judgement be taken
seriously on any topic, let alone be thought seriously worthy of a

Nobel Prize? Anybody tempted to be taken in by the
sanctimoniously hypocritical Mother Teresa should read

Christopher Hitchens's book The Missionary Position: Mother

Teresa in Theory and Practice.

Returning to the American Taliban, listen to Randall Terry,
founder of Operation Rescue, an organization for intimidating
abortion providers. 'When I, or people like me, are running the
country, you'd better flee, because we will find you, we will try you,
and we'll execute you. I mean every word of it. I will make it part
of my mission to see to it that they are tried and executed.' Terry
was here referring to doctors who provide abortions, and his

Christian inspiration is clearly shown by other statements:

I want you to just let a wave of intolerance wash over
you. I want you to let a wave of hatred wash over you. Yes,
hate is good . . . Our goal is a Christian nation. We have a

Biblical duty, we are called by God, to conquer this country.

We don't want equal time. We don't want pluralism.

Our goal must be simple. We must have a Christian
nation built on God's law, on the Ten Commandments.

No apologies.127

This ambition to achieve what can only be called a Christian fascist
state is entirely typical of the American Taliban. It is an almost

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 293
exact mirror image of the Islamic fascist state so ardently sought by
many people in other parts of the world. Randall Terry is not - yet

- in political power. But no observer of the American political scene
at the time of writing (2006) can afford to be sanguine.

A consequentialist or utilitarian is likely to approach the
abortion question in a very different way, by trying to weigh up
suffering. Does the embryo suffer? (Presumably not if it is aborted
before it has a nervous system; and even if it is old enough to have
a nervous system it surely suffers less than, say, an adult cow in a
slaughterhouse.) Does the pregnant woman, or her family, suffer if
she does not have an abortion? Very possibly so; and, in any case,
given that the embryo lacks a nervous system, shouldn't the
mother's well-developed nervous system have the choice?

This is not to deny that a consequentialist might have grounds
to oppose abortion. 'Slippery slope' arguments can be framed by
consequentialists (though I wouldn't in this case). Maybe embryos
don't suffer, but a culture that tolerates the taking of human life
risks going too far: where will it all end? In infanticide? The
moment of birth provides a natural Rubicon for defining rules, and
one could argue that it is hard to find another one earlier in
embryonic development. Slippery slope arguments could therefore
lead us to give the moment of birth more significance than
utilitarianism, narrowly interpreted, would prefer.

Arguments against euthanasia, too, can be framed in slippery
slope terms. Let's invent an imaginary quotation from a moral
philosopher: 'If you allow doctors to put terminal patients out of
their agony, the next thing you know everybody will be bumping
off their granny to get her money. We philosophers may have grown
out of absolutism, but society needs the discipline of absolute rules
such as "Thou shalt not kill," otherwise it doesn't know where to
stop. Under some circumstances absolutism might, for all the
wrong reasons in a less than ideal world, have better consequences
than naive consequentialism! We philosophers might have a hard
time prohibiting the eating of people who were already dead and
unmourned - say road-killed tramps. But, for slippery slope
reasons, the absolutist taboo against cannibalism is too valuable to
lose.'

Slippery slope arguments might be seen as a way in which

294 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
consequentialists can reimport a form of indirect absolutism. But
the religious foes of abortion don't bother with slippery slopes. For
them, the issue is much simpler. An embryo is a 'baby', killing it is
murder, and that's that: end of discussion. Much follows from this
absolutist stance. For a start, embryonic stem-cell research must
cease, despite its huge potential for medical science, because it
entails the deaths of embryonic cells. The inconsistency is apparent
when you reflect that society already accepts IVF (in vitro
fertilization), in which doctors routinely stimulate women to pro-
duce surplus eggs, to be fertilized outside the body. As many as a
dozen viable zygotes may be produced, of which two or three are
then implanted in the uterus. The expectation is that, of these, only
one or possibly two will survive. IVF, therefore, kills conceptuses at
two stages of the procedure, and society in general has no problem
with this. For twenty-five years, IVF has been a standard procedure
for bringing joy into the lives of childless couples.

Religious absolutists, however, can have problems with IVF. The

Guardian of 3 June 2005 carried a bizarre story under the headline

'Christian couples answer call to save embryos left by IVF'. The
story is about an organization called Snowflakes which seeks to

'rescue' surplus embryos left over at IVF clinics. 'We really felt like
the Lord was calling us to try to give one of these embryos - these
children - a chance to live,' said a woman in Washington State,
whose fourth child resulted from this 'unexpected alliance that
conservative Christians have been forming with the world of test-
tube babies'. Worried about that alliance, her husband had
consulted a church elder, who advised, 'If you want to free the
slaves, you sometimes have to make a deal with the slave trader.' I
wonder what these people would say if they knew that the majority
of conceived embryos spontaneously abort anyway. It is probably
best seen as a kind of natural 'quality control'.

A certain kind of religious mind cannot see the moral difference
between killing a microscopic cluster of cells on the one hand, and
killing a full-grown doctor on the other. I have already quoted

Randall Terry and 'Operation Rescue'. Mark Juergensmeyer, in his
chilling book Terror in the Mind of God, prints a photograph of the

Reverend Michael Bray with his friend the Reverend Paul Hill,
holding a banner reading: 'Is it wrong to stop the murder of

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 295
innocent babies?' Both look like nice, rather preppy young men,
smiling engagingly, casually well-dressed, the very opposite of
staring-eyed loonies. Yet they and their friends of the Army of God

(AOG) made it their business to set fire to abortion clinics, and they
have made no secret of their desire to kill doctors. On 29 July 1994,

Paul Hill took a shotgun and murdered Dr John Britton and his
bodyguard James Barrett outside Britton's clinic in Pensacola,

Florida. He then gave himself up to the police, saying he had killed
the doctor to prevent the future deaths of 'innocent babies'.

Michael Bray defends such actions articulately and with every
appearance of high moral purpose, as I discovered when I inter-
viewed him, in a public park in Colorado Springs, for my television
documentary on religion.* Before coming on to the abortion
question, I got the measure of Bray's Bible-based morality by ask-
ing him some preliminary questions. I pointed out that biblical law
condemns adulterers to death by stoning. I expected him to dis-
avow this particular example as obviously beyond the pale, but he
surprised me. He was happy to agree that, after due process of law,
adulterers should be executed. I then pointed out that Paul Hill,
with Bray's full support, had not followed due process but had
taken the law into his own hands and killed a doctor. Bray defended
his fellow clergyman's action in the same terms as he had when

Juergensmeyer interviewed him, making a distinction between
retributive killing, say of a retired doctor, and killing a practising
doctor as a means of preventing him from 'regularly killing babies'.

I then put it to him that, sincere though Paul Hill's beliefs no doubt
were, society would descend into a terrible anarchy if everybody
invoked personal conviction in order to take the law into their own
hands, rather than abiding by the law of the land. Wasn't the right
course to try to get the law changed, democratically? Bray replied:

'Well, this is the problem when we don't have law that's really
authentic law; when we have laws that are made up by people on
the spot, capriciously, as we have seen in the case of the so-called
law of abortion rights, that was imposed upon the people by
judges . . .' We then got into an argument about the American
constitution and where laws come from. Bray's attitude to such
matters turned out to be very reminiscent of those militant Muslims

* The animal liberationists who threaten violence against scientists using animals
for medical research would claim an equally high moral purpose.

296 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
living in Britain who openly announce themselves as bound only by

Islamic law, not by the democratically enacted laws of their adopted
country.

In 2003 Paul Hill was executed for the murder of Dr Britton and
his bodyguard, saying he would do it again to save the unborn.

Candidly looking forward to dying for his cause, he told a news
conference, 'I believe the state, by executing me, will be making me
a martyr.' Right-wing anti-abortionists protesting at his execution
were joined in unholy alliance by left-wing opponents of the death
penalty who urged the Governor of Florida, Jeb Bush, to 'stop the
martyrdom of Paul Hill'. They plausibly argued that the judicial
killing of Hill would actually encourage more murders, the precise
opposite of the deterrent effect that the death penalty is supposed
to have. Hill himself smiled all the way to the execution chamber,
saying, 'I expect a great reward in heaven . . . I am looking forward
to glory.'128 And he suggested that others should take up his violent
cause. Anticipating revenge attacks for the 'martyrdom' of Paul

Hill, the police went on heightened alert as he was executed, and
several individuals connected with the case received threatening
letters accompanied by bullets.

This whole terrible business stems from a simple difference of
perception. There are people who, because of their religious con-
victions, think abortion is murder and are prepared to kill in
defence of embryos, which they choose to call 'babies'. On the
other side are equally sincere supporters of abortion, who either
have different religious convictions, or no religion, coupled with
well-thought-out consequentialist morals. They too see themselves
as idealists, providing a medical service for patients in need, who
would otherwise go to dangerously incompetent back-street
quacks. Both sides see the other side as murderers or advocates of
murder. Both sides, by their own lights, are equally sincere.

A spokeswoman for another abortion clinic described Paul Hill
as a dangerous psychopath. But people like him don't think of
themselves as dangerous psychopaths; they think of themselves as
good, moral people, guided by God. Indeed, I don't think Paul Hill
was a psychopath. Just very religious. Dangerous, yes, but not a
psychopath. Dangerously religious. By the lights of his religious
faith, Hill was entirely right and moral to shoot Dr Britton. What

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 2 9 7
was wrong with Hill was his religious faith itself. Michael Bray,
too, when I met him, didn't strike me as a psychopath. I actually
quite liked him. I thought he was an honest and sincere man,
quietly spoken and thoughtful, but his mind had unfortunately
been captured by poisonous religious nonsense.

Strong opponents of abortion are almost all deeply religious.

The sincere supporters of abortion, whether personally religious or
not, are likely to follow a non-religious, consequentialist moral
philosophy, perhaps invoking Jeremy Bentham's question, 'Can
they suffer}' Paul Hill and Michael Bray saw no moral difference
between killing an embryo and killing a doctor except that the
embryo was, to them, a blamelessly innocent 'baby'. The con-
sequentialist sees all the difference in the world. An early embryo
has the sentience, as well as the semblance, of a tadpole. A doctor
is a grown-up conscious being with hopes, loves, aspirations, fears,
a massive store of humane knowledge, the capacity for deep
emotion, very probably a devastated widow and orphaned
children, perhaps elderly parents who dote on him.

Paul Hill caused real, deep, lasting suffering, to beings with
nervous systems capable of suffering. His doctor victim did no such
thing. Early embryos that have no nervous system most certainly do
not suffer. And if late-aborted embryos with nervous systems suffer

- though all suffering is deplorable - it is not because they are
human that they suffer. There is no general reason to suppose that
human embryos at any age suffer more than cow or sheep embryos
at the same developmental stage. And there is every reason to
suppose that all embryos, whether human or not, suffer far less
than adult cows or sheep in a slaughterhouse, especially a ritual
slaughterhouse where, for religious reasons, they must be fully
conscious when their throats are ceremonially cut.

Suffering is hard to measure,129 and the details might be dis-
puted. But that doesn't affect my main point, which concerns the
difference between secular consequentialist and religiously absolute
moral philosophies.* One school of thought cares about whether
embryos can suffer. The other cares about whether they are human.

Religious moralists can be heard debating questions like, 'When
does the developing embryo become a person - a human being?'

* This doesn't, of course, exhaust the possibilities. A substantial majority of

American Christians do not take an absolutist attitude to abortion, and are pro-
choice. See e.g. the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice, at www.rcrc.org/.

298 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Secular moralists are more likely to ask, 'Never mind whether it is
human (what does that even mean for a little cluster of cells?); at
what age does any developing embryo, of any species, become
capable of suffering}''

THE GREAT BEETHOVEN FALLACY

The anti-abortionist's next move in the verbal chess game usually
goes something like this. The point is not whether a human embryo
can or cannot suffer at present. The point lies in its potential.

Abortion has deprived it of the opportunity for a full human life in
the future. This notion is epitomized by a rhetorical argument
whose extreme stupidity is its only defence against a charge of
serious dishonesty. I am speaking of the Great Beethoven Fallacy,
which exists in several forms. Peter and Jean Medawar,* in The

Life Science, attribute the following version to Norman St John

Stevas (now Lord St John), a British Member of Parliament and
prominent Roman Catholic layman. He, in turn, got it from

Maurice Baring (1874-1945), a noted Roman Catholic convert and
close associate of those Catholic stalwarts G. K. Chesterton and

Hilaire Belloc. He cast it in the form of a hypothetical dialogue
between two doctors.

'About the terminating of pregnancy, I want your opinion.

The father was syphilitic, the mother tuberculous. Of the
four children born, the first was blind, the second died,
the third was deaf and dumb, the fourth was also
tuberculous. What would you have done?'

'I would have terminated the pregnancy.'

'Then you would have murdered Beethoven.'

The Internet is riddled with so-called pro-life web sites that
repeat this ridiculous story, and incidentally change factual
premises with wanton abandon. Here's another version. 'If you
knew a woman who was pregnant, who had 8 kids already, three
of whom were deaf, two who were blind, one mentally retarded (all

* Sir Peter Medawar won the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine, 1960.

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 299
because she had syphilis), would you recommend that she have an
abortion? Then you would have killed Beethoven.'130 This render-
ing of the legend demotes the great composer from fifth to ninth in
the birth order, raises the number born deaf to three and the
number born blind to two, and gives syphilis to the mother instead
of the father. Most of the forty-three websites I found when search-
ing for versions of the story attribute it not to Maurice Baring but
to a certain Professor L. R. Agnew at UCLA Medical School, who
is said to have put the dilemma to his students and to have told
them, 'Congratulations, you have just murdered Beethoven.' We
might charitably give L. R. Agnew the benefit of doubting his
existence - it is amazing how these urban legends sprout. I cannot
discover whether it was Baring who originated the legend, or
whether it was invented earlier.

For invented it certainly was. It is completely false. The truth is
that Ludwig van Beethoven was neither the ninth child nor the fifth
child of his parents. He was the eldest - strictly the number two,
but his elder sibling died in infancy, as was common in those days,
and was not, so far as is known, blind or deaf or dumb or mentally
retarded. There is no evidence that either of his parents had
syphilis, although it is true that his mother eventually died of
tuberculosis. There was a lot of it about at the time.

This is, in fact, a fully fledged urban legend, a fabrication,
deliberately disseminated by people with a vested interest in spread-
ing it. But the fact that it is a lie is, in any case, completely beside
the point. Even if it were not a lie, the argument derived from it is
a very bad argument indeed. Peter and Jean Medawar had no need
to doubt the truth of the story in order to point out the fallacy of
the argument: 'The reasoning behind this odious little argument is
breathtakingly fallacious, for unless it is being suggested that there
is some causal connection between having a tubercular mother and
a syphilitic father and giving birth to a musical genius the world is
no more likely to be deprived of a Beethoven by abortion than by
chaste abstinence from intercourse.'131 The Medawars' laconically
scornful dismissal is unanswerable (to borrow the plot of one of

Roald Dahl's dark short stories, an equally fortuitous decision not
to have an abortion in 1888 gave us Adolf Hitler). But you do need
a modicum of intelligence - or perhaps freedom from a certain kind

300 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
of religious upbringing - to get the point. Of the forty-three 'pro-
life' websites quoting a version of the Beethoven legend which my

Google search turned up on the day of writing, not a single one
spotted the illogic in the argument. Every one of them (they were
all religious sites, by the way) fell for the fallacy, hook, line and
sinker. One of them even acknowledged Medawar (spelled

Medawar) as the source. So eager were these people to believe a
fallacy congenial to their faith, they didn't even notice that the

Medawars had quoted the argument solely in order to blow it out
of the water.

As the Medawars were entirely right to point out, the logical
conclusion to the 'human potential' argument is that we potentially
deprive a human soul of the gift of existence every time we fail to
seize any opportunity for sexual intercourse. Every refusal of any
offer of copulation by a fertile individual is, by this dopey 'pro-life'

logic, tantamount to the murder of a potential child! Even resisting
rape could be represented as murdering a potential baby (and, by
the way, there are plenty of 'pro-life' campaigners who would deny
abortion even to women who have been brutally raped). The

Beethoven argument is, we can clearly see, very bad logic indeed. Its
surreal idiocy is best summed up in that splendid song 'Every sperm
is sacred' sung by Michael Palin, with a chorus of hundreds of
children, in the Monty Python film The Meaning of Life (if you
haven't seen it, please do). The Great Beethoven Fallacy is a typical
example of the kind of logical mess we get into when our minds are
befuddled by religiously inspired absolutism.

Notice now that 'pro-life' doesn't exactly mean pro-life at all. It
means pro-human-lite. The granting of uniquely special rights to
cells of the species Homo sapiens is hard to reconcile with the fact
of evolution. Admittedly, this will not worry those many anti-
abortionists who don't understand that evolution is a fact! But let
me briefly spell out the argument for the benefit of anti-abortion
activists who may be less ignorant of science.

The evolutionary point is very simple. The humanness of an
embryo's cells cannot confer upon it any absolutely discontinuous
moral status. It cannot, because of our evolutionary continuity
with chimpanzees and, more distantly, with every species on the
planet. To see this, imagine that an intermediate species, say

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 301

Australopithecus afarensis, had chanced to survive and was
discovered in a remote part of Africa. Would these creatures 'count
as human' or not? To a consequentialist like me, the question
doesn't deserve an answer, for nothing turns on it. It is enough that
we would be fascinated and honoured to meet a new 'Lucy'. The
absolutist, on the other hand, must answer the question, in order to
apply the moral principle of granting humans unique and special
status because they are human. If it came to the crunch, they would
presumably need to set up courts, like those of apartheid South

Africa, to decide whether a particular individual should 'pass for
human'.

Even if a clear answer might be attempted for Australopithecus,
the gradual continuity that is an inescapable feature of biological
evolution tells us that there must be some intermediate who would
lie sufficiently close to the 'borderline' to blur the moral principle
and destroy its absoluteness. A better way to say this is that there
are no natural borderlines in evolution. The illusion of a borderline
is created by the fact that the evolutionary intermediates happen to
be extinct. Of course, it could be argued that humans are more
capable of, for example, suffering than other species. This could
well be true, and we might legitimately give humans special status
by virtue of it. But evolutionary continuity shows that there is no
absolute distinction. Absolutist moral discrimination is devastat-
ingly undermined by the fact of evolution. An uneasy awareness of
this fact might, indeed, underlie one of the main motives creation-
ists have for opposing evolution: they fear what they believe to be
its moral consequences. They are wrong to do so but, in any case,
it is surely very odd to think that a truth about the real world can
be reversed by considerations of what would be morally desirable.

How 'MODERATION' IN FAITH

FOSTERS FANATICISM

In illustration of the dark side of absolutism, I mentioned
the Christians in America who blow up abortion clinics, and the

302 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Taliban of Afghanistan, whose list of cruelties, especially to women,

I find too painful to recount. I could have expanded upon Iran
under the ayatollahs, or Saudi Arabia under the Saud princes,
where women cannot drive, and are in trouble if they even leave
their homes without a male relative (who may, as a generous
concession, be a small male child). See Jan Goodwin's Price of

Honour for a devastating expose of the treatment of women in

Saudi Arabia and other present-day theocracies. Johann Hari, one
of the (London) Independent's liveliest columnists, wrote an article
whose title speaks for itself: 'The best way to undermine the
jihadists is to trigger a rebellion of Muslim women.'132

Or, switching to Christianity, I could have cited those American

'rapture' Christians whose powerful influence on American Middle

Eastern policy is governed by their biblical belief that Israel has a

God-given right to all the lands of Palestine.133 Some rapture

Christians go further and actually yearn for nuclear war because
they interpret it as the 'Armageddon' which, according to their
bizarre but disturbingly popular interpretation of the book of

Revelation, will hasten the Second Coming. I cannot improve on

Sam Harris's chilling comment, in his Letter to a Christian Nation:

It is, therefore, not an exaggeration to say that if the city
of New York were suddenly replaced by a ball of fire,
some significant percentage of the American population
would see a silver-lining in the subsequent mushroom
cloud, as it would suggest to them that the best thing that
is ever going to happen was about to happen: the return
of Christ. It should be blindingly obvious that beliefs of
this sort will do little to help us create a durable future for
ourselves - socially, economically, environmentally, or
geopolitically. Imagine the consequences if any significant
component of the U.S. government actually believed that
the world was about to end and that its ending would be
glorious. The fact that nearly half of the American
population apparently believes this, purely on the basis of
religious dogma, should be considered a moral and
intellectual emergency.

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 303

There are, then, people whose religious faith takes them right
outside the enlightened consensus of my 'moral Zeitgeist'. They
represent what I have called the dark side of religious absolutism,
and they are often called extremists. But my point in this section is
that even mild and moderate religion helps to provide the climate
of faith in which extremism naturally flourishes.

In July 2005, London was the victim of a concerted suicide
bomb attack: three bombs in the subway and one in a bus. Not as
bad as the 2001 attack on the World Trade Center, and certainly
not as unexpected (indeed, London had been braced for just such
an event ever since Blair volunteered us as unwilling side-kicks in

Bush's invasion of Iraq), nevertheless the London explosions
horrified Britain. The newspapers were filled with agonized
appraisals of what drove four young men to blow themselves up
and take a lot of innocent people with them. The murderers were

British citizens, cricket-loving, well-mannered, just the sort of
young men whose company one might have enjoyed.

Why did these cricket-loving young men do it? Unlike their

Palestinian counterparts, or their kamikaze counterparts in Japan,
or their Tamil Tiger counterparts in Sri Lanka, these human bombs
had no expectation that their bereaved families would be lionized,
looked after or supported on martyrs' pensions. On the contrary,
their relatives in some cases had to go into hiding. One of the men
wantonly widowed his pregnant wife and orphaned his toddler. The
action of these four young men has been nothing short of a disaster
not just for themselves and their victims, but for their families and
for the whole Muslim community in Britain, which now faces a
backlash. Only religious faith is a strong enough force to motivate
such utter madness in otherwise sane and decent people. Once
again, Sam Harris put the point with percipient bluntness, taking
the example of the Al-Qaida leader Osama bin Laden (who had
nothing to do with the London bombings, by the way). Why would
anyone want to destroy the World Trade Center and everybody in
it? To call bin Laden 'evil' is to evade our responsibility to give a
proper answer to such an important question.

The answer to this question is obvious - if only because it
has been patiently articulated ad nauseam by bin Laden

304 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
himself. The answer is that men like bin Laden actually
believe what they say they believe. They believe in the
literal truth of the Koran. Why did nineteen well-educated
middle-class men trade their lives in this world for the
privilege of killing thousands of our neighbors? Because
they believed that they would go straight to paradise for
doing so. It is rare to find the behavior of humans so fully
and satisfactorily explained. Why have we been so
reluctant to accept this explanation?134

The respected journalist Muriel Gray, writing in the (Glasgow)

Herald on 24 July 2005, made a similar point, in this case with
reference to the London bombings.

Everyone is being blamed, from the obvious villainous
duo of George W Bush and Tony Blair, to the inaction of

Muslim 'communities'. But it has never been clearer that
there is only one place to lay the blame and it has ever
been thus. The cause of all this misery, mayhem, violence,
terror and ignorance is of course religion itself, and if it
seems ludicrous to have to state such an obvious reality,
the fact is that the government and the media are doing a
pretty good job of pretending that it isn't so.

Our Western politicians avoid mentioning the R word (religion),
and instead characterize their battle as a war against 'terror', as
though terror were a kind of spirit or force, with a will and a mind
of its own. Or they characterize terrorists as motivated by pure

'evil'. But they are not motivated by evil. However misguided we
may think them, they are motivated, like the Christian murderers of
abortion doctors, by what they perceive to be righteousness, faithfully
pursuing what their religion tells them. They are not psychotic; they
are religious idealists who, by their own lights, are rational. They
perceive their acts to be good, not because of some warped personal
idiosyncrasy, and not because they have been possessed by Satan,
but because they have been brought up, from the cradle, to have
total and unquestioning faith. Sam Harris quotes a failed

Palestinian suicide bomber who said that what drove him to kill

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 305

Israelis was 'the love of martyrdom . . . I didn't want revenge for
anything. I just wanted to be a martyr.' On 19 November 2001 The

New Yorker carried an interview by Nasra Hassan of another failed
suicide bomber, a polite young Palestinian aged twenty-seven
known as 'S'. It is so poetically eloquent of the lure of paradise, as
preached by moderate religious leaders and teachers, that I think it
is worth giving at some length:

'What is the attraction of martyrdom?' I asked.

'The power of the spirit pulls us upward, while the
power of material things pulls us downward,' he said.

'Someone bent on martyrdom becomes immune to the
material pull. Our planner asked, "What if the operation
fails?" We told him, "In any case, we get to meet the

Prophet and his companions, inshallah."

'We were floating, swimming, in the feeling that we
were about to enter eternity. We had no doubts. We made
an oath on the Koran, in the presence of Allah - a pledge
not to waver. This jihad pledge is called bayt al-ridwan,
after the garden in Paradise that is reserved for the
prophets and the martyrs. I know that there are other
ways to do jihad. But this one is sweet - the sweetest. All
martyrdom operations, if done for Allah's sake, hurt less
than a gnat's bite!'

S showed me a video that documented the final
planning for the operation. In the grainy footage, I saw
him and two other young men engaging in a ritualistic
dialogue of questions and answers about the glory of
martyrdom . . .

The young men and the planner then knelt and placed
their right hands on the Koran. The planner said: 'Are you
ready? Tomorrow, you will be in Paradise.'135

If I had been 'S', I'd have been tempted to say to the planner,

'Well, in that case, why don't you put your neck where your mouth
is? Why don't you do the suicide mission and take the fast track
to Paradise?' But what is so hard for us to understand is that - to
repeat the point because it is so important - these people actually

306 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
believe what they say they believe. The take-home message is that
we should blame religion itself, not religious extremism - as though
that were some kind of terrible perversion of real, decent religion.

Voltaire got it right long ago: 'Those who can make you believe
absurdities can make you commit atrocities.' So did Bertrand

Russell: 'Many people would sooner die than think. In fact they
do.'

As long as we accept the principle that religious faith must be
respected simply because it is religious faith, it is hard to withhold
respect from the faith of Osama bin Laden and the suicide bombers.

The alternative, one so transparent that it should need no urging, is
to abandon the principle of automatic respect for religious faith.

This is one reason why I do everything in my power to warn people
against faith itself, not just against so-called 'extremist' faith. The
teachings of 'moderate' religion, though not extremist in them-
selves, are an open invitation to extremism.

It might be said that there is nothing special about religious faith
here. Patriotic love of country or ethnic group can also make the
world safe for its own version of extremism, can't it? Yes it can, as
with the kamikazes in Japan and the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka. But
religious faith is an especially potent silencer of rational calculation,
which usually seems to trump all others. This is mostly, I suspect,
because of the easy and beguiling promise that death is not the end,
and that a martyr's heaven is especially glorious. But it is also partly
because it discourages questioning, by its very nature.

Christianity, just as much as Islam, teaches children that un-
questioned faith is a virtue. You don't have to make the case for
what you believe. If somebody announces that it is part of his faith,
the rest of society, whether of the same faith, or another, or of none,
is obliged, by ingrained custom, to 'respect' it without question;
respect it until the day it manifests itself in a horrible massacre like
the destruction of the World Trade Center, or the London or

Madrid bombings. Then there is a great chorus of disownings, as
clerics and 'community leaders' (who elected them, by the way?)

line up to explain that this extremism is a perversion of the 'true'

faith. But how can there be a perversion of faith, if faith, lacking
objective justification, doesn't have any demonstrable standard to
pervert?

W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H R E L I G I O N ? 3 0 7

Ten years ago, Ibn Warraq, in his excellent book Why I Am Not
a Muslim, made a similar point from the standpoint of a deeply
knowledgeable scholar of Islam. Indeed, a good alternative title for

Warraq's book might have been The Myth of Moderate Islam,
which is the actual title of a more recent article in the (London)

Spectator (30 July 2005) by another scholar, Patrick Sookhdeo,
director of the Institute for the Study of Islam and Christianity. 'By
far the majority of Muslims today live their lives without recourse
to violence, for the Koran is like a pick-and-mix selection. If you
want peace, you can find peaceable verses. If you want war, you can
find bellicose verses.'

Sookhdeo goes on to explain how Islamic scholars, in order to
cope with the many contradictions that they found in the Qur'an,
developed the principle of abrogation, whereby later texts trump
earlier ones. Unfortunately, the peaceable passages in the Qur'an
are mostly early, dating from Muhammad's time in Mecca. The
more belligerent verses tend to date from later, after his flight to

Medina. The result is that
the mantra 'Islam is peace' is almost 1,400 years out of
date. It was only for about 13 years that Islam was peace
and nothing but peace . . . For today's radical Muslims -
just as for the mediaeval jurists who developed classical

Islam - it would be truer to say 'Islam is war'. One of the
most radical Islamic groups in Britain, al-Ghurabaa,
stated in the wake of the two London bombings, 'Any

Muslim that denies that terror is a part of Islam is kafir.'

A kafir is an unbeliever (i.e. a non-Muslim), a term of
gross insult.. .

Could it be that the young men who committed suicide
were neither on the fringes of Muslim society in Britain,
nor following an eccentric and extremist interpretation of
their faith, but rather that they came from the very core of
the Muslim community and were motivated by a main-
stream interpretation of Islam?

More generally (and this applies to Christianity no less than to

Islam), what is really pernicious is the practice of teaching children

3 0 8 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
that faith itself is a virtue. Faith is an evil precisely because it
requires no justification and brooks no argument. Teaching
children that unquestioned faith is a virtue primes them - given
certain other ingredients that are not hard to come by - to grow up
into potentially lethal weapons for future jihads or crusades.

Immunized against fear by the promise of a martyr's paradise, the
authentic faith-head deserves a high place in the history of
armaments, alongside the longbow, the warhorse, the tank and the
cluster bomb. If children were taught to question and think through
their beliefs, instead of being taught the superior virtue of faith
without question, it is a good bet that there would be no suicide
bombers. Suicide bombers do what they do because they really
believe what they were taught in their religious schools: that duty
to God exceeds all other priorities, and that martyrdom in his
service will be rewarded in the gardens of Paradise. And they were
taught that lesson not necessarily by extremist fanatics but by
decent, gentle, mainstream religious instructors, who lined them up
in their madrasas, sitting in rows, rhythmically nodding their
innocent little heads up and down while they learned every word
of the holy book like demented parrots. Faith can be very very
dangerous, and deliberately to implant it into the vulnerable mind
of an innocent child is a grievous wrong. It is to childhood itself,
and the violation of childhood by religion, that we turn in the
next chapter.

CHAPTER 9

Childhood, abuse
and the escape from
religion

There is in every village a torch - the teacher:

and an extinguisher - the clergyman.

VICTOR HUGO

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 3 1 1

I begin with an anecdote of nineteenth-century Italy. I am not
implying that anything like this awful story could happen today.

But the attitudes of mind that it betrays are lamentably current,
even though the practical details are not. This nineteenth-century
human tragedy sheds a pitiless light on present-day religious
attitudes to children.

In 1858 Edgardo Mortara, a six-year-old child of Jewish parents
living in Bologna, was legally seized by the papal police acting
under orders from the Inquisition. Edgardo was forcibly dragged
away from his weeping mother and distraught father to the

Catechumens (house for the conversion of Jews and Muslims) in

Rome, and thereafter brought up as a Roman Catholic. Aside from
occasional brief visits under close priestly supervision, his parents
never saw him again. The story is told by David I. Kertzer in his
remarkable book, The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara.

Edgardo's story was by no means unusual in Italy at the time,
and the reason for these priestly abductions was always the same.

In every case, the child had been secretly baptized at some earlier
date, usually by a Catholic nursemaid, and the Inquisition later
came to hear of the baptism. It was a central part of the Roman

Catholic belief-system that, once a child had been baptized, how-
ever informally and clandestinely, that child was irrevocably
transformed into a Christian. In their mental world, to allow a

'Christian child' to stay with his Jewish parents was not an option,
and they maintained this bizarre and cruel stance steadfastly, and
with the utmost sincerity, in the face of worldwide outrage. That
widespread outrage, by the way, was dismissed by the Catholic
newspaper Civilta Cattolica as due to the international power of
rich Jews - sounds familiar, doesn't it?

Apart from the publicity it aroused, Edgardo Mortara's history
was entirely typical of many others. He had once been looked after
by Anna Morisi, an illiterate Catholic girl who was then fourteen.

He fell ill and she panicked lest he might die. Brought up in a stupor
of belief that a child who died unbaptized would suffer forever in
hell, she asked advice from a Catholic neighbour who told her how
to do a baptism. She went back into the house, threw some water
from a bucket on little Edgardo's head and said, 'I baptize you in
the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost.' And

312 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
that was it. From that moment on, Edgardo was legally a Christian.

When the priests of the Inquisition learned of the incident years
later, they acted promptly and decisively, giving no thought to the
sorrowful consequences of their action.

Amazingly for a rite that could have such monumental signifi-
cance for a whole extended family, the Catholic Church allowed

(and still allows) anybody to baptize anybody else. The baptizer
doesn't have to be a priest. Neither the child, nor the parents, nor
anybody else has to consent to the baptism. Nothing need be
signed. Nothing need be officially witnessed. All that is necessary is
a splash of water, a few words, a helpless child, and a superstitious
and catechistically brainwashed babysitter. Actually, only the last of
these is needed because, assuming the child is too young to be a
witness, who is even to know? An American colleague who was
brought up Catholic writes to me as follows: 'We used to baptize
our dolls. I don't remember any of us baptizing our little Protestant
friends but no doubt that has happened and happens today. We
made little Catholics of our dolls, taking them to church, giving
them Holy Communion etc. We were brainwashed to be good

Catholic mothers early on.'

If nineteenth-century girls were anything like my modern corres-
pondent, it is surprising that cases like Edgardo Mortara's were not
more common than they were. As it was, such stories were
distressingly frequent in nineteenth-century Italy, which leaves one
asking the obvious question. Why did the Jews of the Papal States
employ Catholic servants at all, given the appalling risk that could
flow from doing so? Why didn't they take good care to engage

Jewish servants? The answer, yet again, has nothing to do with
sense and everything to do with religion. The Jews needed servants
whose religion didn't forbid them to work on the sabbath. A Jewish
maid could indeed be relied upon not to baptize your child into a
spiritual orphanage. But she couldn't light the fire or clean the house
on a Saturday. This was why, of the Bolognese Jewish families at the
time who could afford servants, most hired Catholics.

In this book, I have deliberately refrained from detailing the
horrors of the Crusades, the conquistadores or the Spanish

Inquisition. Cruel and evil people can be found in every century and
of every persuasion. But this story of the Italian Inquisition and its

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 313
attitude to children is particularly revealing of the religious mind,
and the evils that arise specifically because it is religious. First is the
remarkable perception by the religious mind that a sprinkle of
water and a brief verbal incantation can totally change a child's life,
taking precedence over parental consent, the child's own consent,
the child's own happiness and psychological well-being . . . over
everything that ordinary common sense and human feeling would
see as important. Cardinal Antonelli spelled it out at the time in a
letter to Lionel Rothschild, Britain's first Jewish Member of

Parliament, who had written to protest about Edgardo's abduction.

The cardinal replied that he was powerless to intervene, and added,

'Here it may be opportune to observe that, if the voice of nature is
powerful, even more powerful are the sacred duties of religion.'

Yes, well, that just about says it all, doesn't it?

Second is the extraordinary fact that the priests, cardinals and

Pope seem genuinely not to have understood what a terrible thing
they were doing to poor Edgardo Mortara. It passes all sensible
understanding, but they sincerely believed they were doing him a
good turn by taking him away from his parents and giving him a

Christian upbringing. They felt a duty of protection! A Catholic
newspaper in the United States defended the Pope's stance on the

Mortara case, arguing that it was unthinkable that a Christian
government 'could leave a Christian child to be brought up by a

Jew' and invoking the principle of religious liberty, 'the liberty of a
child to be a Christian and not forced compulsorily to be a Jew . . .

The Holy Father's protection of the child, in the face of all the
ferocious fanaticism of infidelity and bigotry, is the grandest moral
spectacle which the world has seen for ages.' Has there ever been a
more flagrant misdirection of words like 'forced', 'compulsorily',

'ferocious', 'fanaticism' and 'bigotry'? Yet all the indications are
that Catholic apologists, from the Pope down, sincerely believed
that what they were doing was right: absolutely right morally, and
right for the welfare of the child. Such is the power of (mainstream,

'moderate') religion to warp judgement and pervert ordinary
human decency. The newspaper Il Cattolico was frankly bewildered
at the widespread failure to see what a magnanimous favour the

Church had done Edgardo Mortara when it rescued him from his

Jewish family:

314 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Whoever among us gives a little serious thought to the
matter, compares the condition of a Jew - without a true

Church, without a King, and without a country, dispersed
and always a foreigner wherever he lives on the face of the
earth, and moreover, infamous for the ugly stain with
which the killers of Christ are marked . . . will immedi-
ately understand how great is this temporal advantage
that the Pope is obtaining for the Mortara boy.

Third is the presumptuousness whereby religious people know,
without evidence, that the faith of their birth is the one true faith,
all others being aberrations or downright false. The above
quotations give vivid examples of this attitude on the Christian
side. It would be grossly unjust to equate the two sides in this case,
but this is as good a place as any to note that the Mortaras could
at a stroke have had Edgardo back, if only they had accepted the
priests' entreaties and agreed to be baptized themselves. Edgardo
had been stolen in the first place because of a splash of water and
a dozen meaningless words. Such is the fatuousness of the
religiously indoctrinated mind, another pair of splashes is all it
would have taken to reverse the process. To some of us, the parents'

refusal indicates wanton stubbornness. To others, their principled
stand elevates them into the long list of martyrs for all religions
down the ages.

'Be of good comfort Master Ridley and play the man: we shall
this day by God's grace light such a candle in England, as I trust
shall never be put out.' No doubt there are causes for which to die
is noble. But how could the martyrs Ridley, Latimer and Cranmer
let themselves be burned rather than forsake their Protestant Little-
endianism in favour of Catholic Big-endianism - does it really
matter all that much from which end you open a boiled egg? Such
is the stubborn - or admirable, if that is your view - conviction of
the religious mind, that the Mortaras could not bring themselves to
seize the opportunity offered by the meaningless rite of baptism.

Couldn't they cross their fingers, or whisper 'not' under their breath
while being baptized? No, they couldn't, because they had been
brought up in a (moderate) religion, and therefore took the whole
ridiculous charade seriously. As for me, I think only of poor little

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 315

Edgardo - unwittingly born into a world dominated by the
religious mind, hapless in the crossfire, all but orphaned in an act
of well-meaning but, to a young child, shattering cruelty.

Fourth, to pursue the same theme, is the assumption that a six-
year-old child can properly be said to have a religion at all, whether
it is Jewish or Christian or anything else. To put it another way, the
idea that baptizing an unknowing, uncomprehending child can
change him from one religion to another at a stroke seems absurd

- but it is surely not more absurd than labelling a tiny child as
belonging to any particular religion in the first place. What
mattered to Edgardo was not 'his' religion (he was too young to
possess thought-out religious opinions) but the love and care of his
parents and family, and he was deprived of those by celibate priests
whose grotesque cruelty was mitigated only by their crass
insensitivity to normal human feelings - an insensitivity that comes
all too easily to a mind hijacked by religious faith.

Even without physical abduction, isn't it always a form of child
abuse to label children as possessors of beliefs that they are too
young to have thought about? Yet the practice persists to this day,
almost entirely unquestioned. To question it is my main purpose in
this chapter.

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL ABUSE

Priestly abuse of children is nowadays taken to mean sexual abuse,
and I feel obliged, at the outset, to get the whole matter of sexual
abuse into proportion and out of the way. Others have noted that
we live in a time of hysteria about pedophilia, a mob psychology
that calls to mind the Salem witch-hunts of 1692. In July 2000
the News of the World, widely acclaimed in the face of stiff com-
petition as Britain's most disgusting newspaper, organized a 'name
and shame' campaign, barely stopping short of inciting vigilantes to
take direct violent action against pedophiles. The house of a
hospital pediatrician was attacked by zealots unacquainted with the
difference between a pediatrician and a pedophile.136 The mob
hysteria over pedophiles has reached epidemic proportions and

316 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
driven parents to panic. Today's Just Williams, today's Huck Finns,
today's Swallows and Amazons are deprived of the freedom to
roam that was one of the delights of childhood in earlier times

(when the actual, as opposed to perceived, risk of molestation was
probably no less).

In fairness to the News of the World, at the time of its campaign
passions had been aroused by a truly horrifying murder, sexually
motivated, of an eight-year-old girl kidnapped in Sussex.

Nevertheless, it is clearly unjust to visit upon all pedophiles a
vengeance appropriate to the tiny minority who are also murderers.

All three of the boarding schools I attended employed teachers
whose affection for small boys overstepped the bounds of propriety.

That was indeed reprehensible. Nevertheless if, fifty years on, they
had been hounded by vigilantes or lawyers as no better than child
murderers, I should have felt obliged to come to their defence, even
as the victim of one of them (an embarrassing but otherwise harm-
less experience).

The Roman Catholic Church has borne a heavy share of such
retrospective opprobrium. For all sorts of reasons I dislike the

Roman Catholic Church. But I dislike unfairness even more, and I
can't help wondering whether this one institution has been unfairly
demonized over the issue, especially in Ireland and America. I
suppose some additional public resentment flows from the
hypocrisy of priests whose professional life is largely devoted to
arousing guilt about 'sin'. Then there is the abuse of trust by a
figure in authority, whom the child has been trained from the cradle
to revere. Such additional resentments should make us all the more
careful not to rush to judgement. We should be aware of the
remarkable power of the mind to concoct false memories, especially
when abetted by unscrupulous therapists and mercenary lawyers.

The psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has shown great courage, in the
face of spiteful vested interests, in demonstrating how easy it is for
people to concoct memories that are entirely false but which seem,
to the victim, every bit as real as true memories.137 This is so
counter-intuitive that juries are easily swayed by sincere but false
testimony from witnesses.

In the particular case of Ireland, even without the sexual abuse,
the brutality of the Christian Brothers,138 responsible for the

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 3 1 7
education of a significant proportion of the male population of the
country, is legendary. And the same could be said of the often
sadistically cruel nuns who ran many of Ireland's girls' schools. The
infamous Magdalene Asylums, subject of Peter Mullan's film

The Magdalene Sisters, continued in existence until as late as 1996.

Forty years on, it is harder to get redress for floggings than for
sexual fondlings, and there is no shortage of lawyers actively
soliciting custom from victims who might not otherwise have raked
over the distant past. There's gold in them thar long-gone fumbles
in the vestry - some of them, indeed, so long gone that the alleged
offender is likely to be dead and unable to present his side of the
story. The Catholic Church worldwide has paid out more than a
billion dollars in compensation.139 You might almost sympathize
with them, until you remember where their money came from in the
first place.

Once, in the question time after a lecture in Dublin, I was asked
what I thought about the widely publicized cases of sexual abuse by

Catholic priests in Ireland. I replied that, horrible as sexual abuse
no doubt was, the damage was arguably less than the long-term
psychological damage inflicted by bringing the child up Catholic in
the first place. It was an off-the-cuff remark made in the heat of the
moment, and I was surprised that it earned a round of enthusiastic
applause from that Irish audience (composed, admittedly, of Dublin
intellectuals and presumably not representative of the country at
large). But I was reminded of the incident later when I received a
letter from an American woman in her forties who had been
brought up Roman Catholic. At the age of seven, she told me, two
unpleasant things had happened to her. She was sexually abused by
her parish priest in his car. And, around the same time, a little
schoolfriend of hers, who had tragically died, went to hell because
she was a Protestant. Or so my correspondent had been led to
believe by the then official doctrine of her parents' church. Her
view as a mature adult was that, of these two examples of Roman

Catholic child abuse, the one physical and the other mental, the
second was by far the worst. She wrote:

Being fondled by the priest simply left the impression

(from the mind of a 7 year old) as 'yucky' while the

318 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
memory of my friend going to hell was one of cold,
immeasurable fear. I never lost sleep because of the priest

- but I spent many a night being terrified that the people

I loved would go to Hell. It gave me nightmares.

Admittedly, the sexual fondling she suffered in the priest's car
was relatively mild compared with, say, the pain and disgust of a
sodomized altar boy. And nowadays the Catholic Church is said
not to make so much of hell as it once did. But the example shows
that it is at least possible for psychological abuse of children to out-
class physical. It is said that Alfred Hitchcock, the great cinematic
specialist in the art of frightening people, was once driving through

Switzerland when he suddenly pointed out of the car window and
said, 'That is the most frightening sight I have ever seen.' It was a
priest in conversation with a little boy, his hand on the boy's
shoulder. Hitchcock leaned out of the car window and shouted,

'Run, little boy! Run for your life!'

'Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words can never
hurt me.' The adage is true as long as you don't really believe the
words. But if your whole upbringing, and everything you have ever
been told by parents, teachers and priests, has led you to believe,
really believe, utterly and completely, that sinners burn in hell (or
some other obnoxious article of doctrine such as that a woman is
the property of her husband), it is entirely plausible that words
could have a more long-lasting and damaging effect than deeds. I
am persuaded that the phrase 'child abuse' is no exaggeration when
used to describe what teachers and priests are doing to children
whom they encourage to believe in something like the punishment
of unshriven mortal sins in an eternal hell.

In the television documentary Root of All Evil? to which I have
already referred, I interviewed a number of religious leaders and
was criticized for picking on American extremists rather than
respectable mainstreamers like archbishops.* It sounds like a fair
criticism - except that, in early 21st-century America, what seems

* The Archbishop of Canterbury, the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster and the

Chief Rabbi of Britain were all invited to be interviewed by me. All declined,
doubtless for good reasons. The Bishop of Oxford agreed, and he was as delight-
ful, and as far from being extremist, as they surely would have been.

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 3 1 9
extreme to the outside world is actually mainstream. One of my
interviewees who most appalled the British television audience, for
example, was Pastor Ted Haggard of Colorado Springs. But, far
from being extreme in Bush's America, 'Pastor Ted' is president of
the thirty-million-strong National Association of Evangelicals, and
he claims to be favoured with a telephone consultation with

President Bush every Monday. If I had wanted to interview real
extremists by modern American standards, I'd have gone for

'Reconstructionists' whose 'Dominion Theology' openly advocates
a Christian theocracy in America. As a concerned American
colleague writes to me:

Europeans need to know there is a traveling theo-freak
show which actually advocates reinstatement of Old

Testament law - killing of homosexuals etc. - and the
right to hold office, or even to vote, for Christians only.

Middle class crowds cheer to this rhetoric. If secularists
are not vigilant, Dominionists and Reconstructionists will
soon be mainstream in a true American theocracy. *

Another of my television interviewees was Pastor Keenan

Roberts, from the same state of Colorado as Pastor Ted.

Pastor Roberts's particular brand of nuttiness takes the form of
what he calls Hell Houses. A Hell House is a place where children
are brought, by their parents or their Christian schools, to be scared
witless over what might happen to them after they die. Actors
play out fearsome tableaux of particular 'sins' like abortion and
homosexuality, with a scarlet-clad devil in gloating attendance.

These are a prelude to the piece de resistance, Hell Itself, complete

* The following seems to be real, although I at first suspected a satirical hoax by

The Onion: www.talk2action.org/story/2006/5/29/l 95 855/959. It is a computer
game called Left Behind: Eternal Forces. P. Z. Myers sums it up on his excellent

Pharyngula website. 'Imagine: you are a foot soldier in a paramilitary group whose
purpose is to remake America as a Christian theocracy and establish its worldly
vision of the dominion of Christ over all aspects of life . . . You are on a mission

- both a religious mission and a military mission - to convert or kill Catholics,

Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, gays, and anyone who advocates the separation of
church and state . . .' See http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/05/gta_
meet_lbef.php; for a review, see http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?

res=F1071FFD3C550C718CDDAA0894DE404482.

320 T I I E G O D D E L U S I O N
with realistic sulphurous smell of burning brimstone and the ago-
nized screams of the forever damned.

After watching a rehearsal, in which the devil was suitably
diabolical in the hammed-up style of a villain of Victorian
melodrama, I interviewed Pastor Roberts in the presence of his cast.

He told me that the optimum age for a child to visit a Hell House
is twelve. This shocked me somewhat, and I asked him whether it
would worry him if a twelve-year-old child had nightmares after
one of his performances. He replied, presumably honestly:

I would rather for them to understand that Hell is a place
that they absolutely do not want to go. I would rather
reach them with that message at twelve than to not reach
them with that message and have them live a life of sin
and to never find the Lord Jesus Christ. And if they end
up having nightmares, as a result of experiencing this, I
think there's a higher good that would ultimately be
achieved and accomplished in their life than simply having
nightmares.

I suppose that, if you really and truly believed what Pastor

Roberts says he believes, you would feel it right to intimidate
children too.

We cannot write off Pastor Roberts as an extremist wingnut.

Like Ted Haggard, he is mainstream in today's America. I'd be sur-
prised if even they would buy into the belief of some of their
co-religionists that you can hear the screams of the damned if you
listen in on volcanoes,140 and that the giant tube worms found in
hot deep-ocean vents are fulfilments of Mark 9: 43-4: 'And if thy
hand offend thee, cut it off: it is better for thee to enter into life
maimed, than having two hands to go into hell, into the fire that
never shall be quenched: where their worm dieth not, and the fire
is not quenched.' Whatever they believe hell is actually like, all
these hell-fire enthusiasts seem to share the gloating Schadenfreude
and complacency of those who know they are among the saved,
well conveyed by that foremost among theologians, St Thomas

Aquinas, in Summa Theologica: 'That the saints may enjoy their
beatitude and the grace of God more abundantly they are permitted

C H I L D H O O D , ABUSE AND R E L I G I O N 321
to see the punishment of the damned in hell.' Nice man.*

The fear of hell-fire can be very real, even among otherwise
rational people. After my television documentary on religion,
among the many letters I received was this, from an obviously
bright and honest woman:

I went to a Catholic school from the age of five, and was
indoctrinated by nuns who wielded straps, sticks and
canes. During my teens I read Darwin, and what he said
about evolution made such a lot of sense to the logical
part of my mind. However, I've gone through life suffer-
ing much conflict and a deep down fear of hell fire which
gets triggered quite frequently. I've had some psychother-
apy which has enabled me to work through some of my
earlier problems but can't seem to overcome this deep fear.

So, the reason I'm writing to you is would you send me
please the name and address of the therapist you inter-
viewed on this week's programme who deals with this
particular fear.

I was moved by her letter, and (suppressing a momentary and
ignoble regret that there is no hell for those nuns to go to) replied
that she should trust in her reason as a great gift which she - unlike
less fortunate people - obviously possessed. I suggested that the
extreme horribleness of hell, as portrayed by priests and nuns, is
inflated to compensate for its implausibility. If hell were plausible,
it would only have to be moderately unpleasant in order to deter.

Given that it is so unlikely to be true, it has to be advertised as
very very scary indeed, to balance its implausibility and retain
some deterrence value. I also put her in touch with the therapist she
mentioned, Jill Mytton, a delightful and deeply sincere woman
whom I had interviewed on camera. Jill had herself been raised in
a more than usually odious sect called the Exclusive Brethren: so
unpleasant that there is even a website, www.peebs.net, entirely
devoted to caring for those who have escaped from it.

Jill Mytton herself had been brought up to be terrified of hell,
had escaped from Christianity as an adult, and now counsels and

* Compare Ann Coulter's charming Christian charity: 'I defy any of my co-
religionists to tell me they do not laugh at the idea of Dawkins burning in hell'

(Coulter 2006: 268).

322 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
helps others similarly traumatized in childhood: 'If I think back to
my childhood, it's one dominated by fear. And it was the fear of dis-
approval while in the present, but also of eternal damnation. And
for a child, images of hell-fire and gnashing of teeth are actually
very real. They are not metaphorical at all.' I then asked her to spell
out what she had actually been told about hell, as a child, and her
eventual reply was as moving as her expressive face during the long
hesitation before she answered: 'It's strange, isn't it? After all this
time it still has the power to . . . affect me ., . when you . . . when
you ask me that question. Hell is a fearful place. It's complete
rejection by God. It's complete judgement, there is real fire, there is
real torment, real torture, and it goes on for ever so there is no
respite from it.'

She went on to tell me of the support group she runs for escapees
from a childhood similar to her own, and she dwelt on how
difficult it is for many of them to leave: 'The process of leaving is
extraordinarily difficult. Ah, you are leaving behind a whole social
network, a whole system that you've practically been brought up
in, you are leaving behind a belief-system that you have held for
years. Very often you leave families and friends . . . You don't really
exist any more for them.' I was able to chime in with my own
experience of letters from people in America saying they have read
my books and have given up their religion as a consequence.

Disconcertingly many go on to say that they daren't tell their
families, or that they have told their families with terrible results.

The following is typical. The writer is a young American medical
student.

I felt the urge to write you an email because I share your
view on religion, a view that is, as I'm sure you're aware,
isolating in America. I grew up in a Christian family and
even though the idea of religion never sat well with me I
only recently got up the nerve to tell someone. That some-
one was my girlfriend who was . . . horrified. I realize that
a declaration of atheism could be shocking but now it's as
if she views me as a completely different person. She can't
trust me, she says, because my morals don't come from

God. I don't know if we'll get past this, and I don't

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 3 2 3
particularly want to share my belief with other people who
are close to me because I fear the same reaction of distaste

. . . I don't expect a response. I only write to you because

I hoped you'd sympathize and share in my frustration.

Imagine losing someone you loved, and who loved you,
on the basis of religion. Aside from her view that I'm now
a Godless heathen we were perfect for each other. It
reminds me of your observation that people do insane
things in the name of their faith. Thanks for listening.

I replied to this unfortunate young man, pointing out to him that,
while his girlfriend had discovered something about him, he too
had discovered something about her. Was she really good enough
for him? I doubted it.

I have already mentioned the American comic actor Julia Sweeney
and her dogged and endearingly humorous struggle to find some
redeeming features in religion and to rescue the God of her
childhood from her growing adult doubts. Eventually her quest ended
happily, and she is now an admirable role model for young atheists
everywhere. The denouement is perhaps the most moving scene of her
show Letting Go of God. She had tried everything. And then . . .

. . . as I was walking from my office in my backyard into
my house, I realized there was this little teeny-weenie
voice whispering in my head. I'm not sure how long it had
been there, but it suddenly got just one decibel louder. It
whispered, 'There is no god.'

And I tried to ignore it. But it got a teeny bit louder.

'There is no god. There is no god. Oh my god, there is no
god:...

And I shuddered. I felt I was slipping off the raft.

And then I thought, 'But I can't. I don't know if I can
not believe in God. I need God. I mean, we have a his-
tory' . . .

'But I don't know how to not believe in God. I don't
know how you do it. How do you get up, how do you get
through the day?' I felt unbalanced . . .

I thought, 'Okay, calm down. Let's just try on the

324 T H E G O D D E L U S i O N
not-believing-in-God glasses for a moment, just for a sec-
ond. Just put on the no-God glasses and take a quick look
around and then immediately throw them off.' And I put
them on and I looked around.

I'm embarrassed to report that I initially felt dizzy. I
actually had the thought, 'Well, how does the Earth stay
up in the sky? You mean, we're just hurtling through
space? That's so vulnerable!' I wanted to run out and
catch the Earth as it fell out of space into my hands.

And then I remembered, 'Oh yeah, gravity and angular
momentum is gonna keep us revolving around the sun for
probably a long, long time.'

When I saw Letting Go of God in a Los Angeles theatre I was
deeply moved by this scene. Especially when Julia went on to tell us
of her parents' reaction to a press report of her cure:

My first call from my mother was more of a scream.

'Atheist? ATHEIST?!?!'

My dad called and said, 'You have betrayed your
family, your school, your city.' It was like I had sold
secrets to the Russians. They both said they weren't going
to talk to me any more. My dad said, 'I don't even want
you to come to my funeral.' After I hung up, I thought,

'Just try and stop me.'

Part of Julia Sweeney's gift is to make you cry and laugh at the same
time:

I think that my parents had been mildly disappointed
when I'd said I didn't believe in God any more, but being
an atheist was another thing altogether.

Dan Barker's Losing Faith in Faith: Front Preacher to Atheist is the
story of his gradual conversion from devout fundamentalist minister
and zealous travelling preacher to the strong and confident atheist he
is today. Significantly, Barker continued to go through the motions
of preaching Christianity for a while after he had become an atheist,

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 325
because it was the only career he knew and he felt locked into a web
of social obligations. He now knows many other American clergy-
men who are in the same position as he was but have confided only
in him, having read his book. They dare not admit their atheism
even to their own families, so terrible is the anticipated reaction.

Barker's own story had a happier conclusion. To begin with, his
parents were deeply and agonizingly shocked. But they listened to
his quiet reasoning, and eventually became atheists themselves.

Two professors from one university in America wrote to me
independently about their parents. One said that his mother suffers
permanent grief because she fears for his immortal soul. The other
one said that his father wishes he had never been born, so con-
vinced is he that his son is going to spend eternity in hell. These are
highly educated university professors, confident in their scholarship
and their maturity, who have presumably left their parents behind
in all matters of the intellect, not just religion. Just think what the
ordeal must be like for less intellectually robust people, less
equipped by education and rhetorical skill than they are, or than

Julia Sweeney is, to argue their corner in the face of obdurate family
members. As it was for many of Jill Mytton's patients, perhaps.

Earlier in our televised conversation, Jill had described this kind
of religious upbringing as a form of mental abuse, and I returned to
the point, as follows: 'You use the words religious abuse. If you
were to compare the abuse of bringing up a child really to believe
in hell . . . how do you think that would compare in trauma terms
with sexual abuse?' She replied: 'That's a very difficult question . . .

I think there are a lot of similarities actually, because it is about
abuse of trust; it is about denying the child the right to feel free and
open and able to relate to the world in the normal way . . . it's a
form of denigration; it's a form of denial of the true self in both
cases.'

IN DEFENCE OF CHILDREN

My colleague the psychologist Nicholas Humphrey used the 'sticks
and stones' proverb in introducing his Amnesty Lecture in Oxford

326 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
in 1997.141 Humphrey began his lecture by arguing that the proverb
is not always true, citing the case of Haitian Voodoo believers who
die, apparently from some psychosomatic effect of terror, within
days of having a malign 'spell' cast upon them. He then asked
whether Amnesty International, the beneficiary of the lecture series
to which he was contributing, should campaign against hurtful or
damaging speeches or publications. His answer was a resounding
no to such censorship in general: 'Freedom of speech is too precious
a freedom to be meddled with.' But he then went on to shock his
liberal self by advocating one important exception: to argue in
favour of censorship for the special case of children . . .

. . . moral and religious education, and especially the
education a child receives at home, where parents are
allowed - even expected - to determine for their children
what counts as truth and falsehood, right and wrong.

Children, I'll argue, have a human right not to have their
minds crippled by exposure to other people's bad ideas -
no matter who these other people are. Parents, corres-
pondingly, have no God-given licence to enculturate their
children in whatever ways they personally choose: no
right to limit the horizons of their children's knowledge,
to bring them up in an atmosphere of dogma and super-
stition, or to insist they follow the straight and narrow
paths of their own faith.

In short, children have a right not to have their minds
addled by nonsense, and we as a society have a duty to
protect them from it. So we should no more allow parents
to teach their children to believe, for example, in the
literal truth of the Bible or that the planets rule their lives,
than we should allow parents to knock their children's
teeth out or lock them in a dungeon.

Of course, such a strong statement needs, and received, much
qualification. Isn't it a matter of opinion what is nonsense? Hasn't
the applecart of orthodox science been upset often enough to
chasten us into caution? Scientists may think it is nonsense to teach
astrology and the literal truth of the Bible, but there are others who

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 3 2 7
think the opposite, and aren't they entitled to teach it to their
children? Isn't it just as arrogant to insist that children should be
taught science?

I thank my own parents for taking the view that children should
be taught not so much what to think as how to think. If, having
been fairly and properly exposed to all the scientific evidence, they
grow up and decide that the Bible is literally true or that the move-
ments of the planets rule their lives, that is their privilege. The
important point is that it is their privilege to decide what they shall
think, and not their parents' privilege to impose it by force majeure.

And this, of course, is especially important when we reflect that
children become the parents of the next generation, in a position to
pass on whatever indoctrination may have moulded them.

Humphrey suggests that, as long as children are young, vulner-
able and in need of protection, truly moral guardianship shows
itself in an honest attempt to second-guess what they would choose
for themselves if they were old enough to do so. He movingly
quotes the example of a young Inca girl whose 500-year-old
remains were found frozen in the mountains of Peru in 1995. The
anthropologist who discovered her wrote that she had been the
victim of a ritual sacrifice. By Humphrey's account, a documentary
film about this young 'ice maiden' was shown on American
television. Viewers were invited
to marvel at the spiritual commitment of the Inca priests
and to share with the girl on her last journey her pride and
excitement at having been selected for the signal honour
of being sacrificed. The message of the television pro-
gramme was in effect that the practice of human sacrifice
was in its own way a glorious cultural invention - another
jewel in the crown of multiculturalism, if you like.

Humphrey is scandalized, and so am I.

Yet, how dare anyone even suggest this? How dare they
invite us - in our sitting rooms, watching television - to
feel uplifted by contemplating an act of ritual murder: the
murder of a dependent child by a group of stupid, puffed

328 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
up, superstitious, ignorant old men? How dare they invite
us to find good for ourselves in contemplating an immoral
action against someone else?

Again, the decent liberal reader may feel a twinge of unease.

Immoral by our standards, certainly, and stupid, but what about

Inca standards? Surely, to the Incas, the sacrifice was a moral act
and far from stupid, sanctioned by all that they held sacred? The
little girl was, no doubt, a loyal believer in the religion in which she
was brought up. Who are we to use a word like 'murder', judging

Inca priests by our own standards rather than theirs? Perhaps this
girl was rapturously happy with her fate: perhaps she really
believed she was going straight to everlasting paradise, warmed by
the radiant company of the Sun God. Or perhaps - as seems far
more likely - she screamed in terror.

Humphrey's point - and mine - is that, regardless of whether she
was a willing victim or not, there is strong reason to suppose that
she would not have been willing if she had been in full possession
of the facts. For example, suppose she had known that the sun is
really a ball of hydrogen, hotter than a million degrees Kelvin, con-
verting itself into helium by nuclear fusion, and that it originally
formed from a disc of gas out of which the rest of the solar system,
including Earth, also condensed . . . Presumably, then, she would
not have worshipped it as a god, and this would have altered her
perspective on being sacrificed to propitiate it.

The Inca priests cannot be blamed for their ignorance, and it
could perhaps be thought harsh to judge them stupid and puffed
up. But they can be blamed for foisting their own beliefs on a child
too young to decide whether to worship the sun or not.

Humphrey's additional point is that today's documentary film
makers, and we their audience, can be blamed for seeing beauty in
that little girl's death - 'something that enriches our collective
culture'. The same tendency to glory in the quaintness of ethnic
religious habits, and to justify cruelties in their name, crops up
again and again. It is the source of squirming internal conflict in the
minds of nice liberal people who, on the one hand, cannot bear
suffering and cruelty, but on the other hand have been trained by
postmodernists and relativists to respect other cultures no less than

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 329
their own. Female circumcision is undoubtedly hideously painful, it
sabotages sexual pleasure in women (indeed, this is probably its
underlying purpose), and one half of the decent liberal mind wants
to abolish the practice. The other half, however, 'respects' ethnic
cultures and feels that we should not interfere if 'they' want to
mutilate 'their' girls.* The point, of course, is that 'their' girls are
actually the girls' own girls, and their wishes should not be ignored.

Trickier to answer, what if a girl says she wants to be circumcised?

But would she, with the hindsight of a fully informed adult, wish
that it had never happened? Humphrey makes the point that no
adult woman who has somehow missed out on circumcision as a
child volunteers for the operation later in life.

After a discussion of the Amish, and their right to bring up 'their
own' children in 'their own' way, Humphrey is scathing about our
enthusiasm as a society for
maintaining cultural diversity. All right, you may want to
say, so it's tough on a child of the Amish, or the Hasidim, or
the gypsies to be shaped up by their parents in the ways they
are - but at least the result is that these fascinating cultural
traditions continue. Would not our whole civilization be
impoverished if they were to go? It's a shame, maybe, when
individuals have to be sacrificed to maintain such diversity.

But there it is: it's the price we pay as a society. Except, I
would feel bound to remind you, we do not pay it, they do.

The issue came to public attention in 1972 when the US Supreme

Court ruled on a test case, Wisconsin versus Yoder, which con-
cerned the right of parents to withdraw their children from school
on religious grounds. The Amish people live in closed communities
in various parts of the United States, mostly speaking an archaic
dialect of German called Pennsylvania Dutch and eschewing, to
varying extents, electricity, internal combustion engines, buttons
and other manifestations of modern life. There is, indeed, some-
thing attractively quaint about an island of seventeenth-century life
as a spectacle for today's eyes. Isn't it worth preserving, for the sake
of the enrichment of human diversity? And the only way to preserve

* It is a regular practice in Britain today. A senior Schools Inspector told me of

London girls in 2006 being sent to an 'uncle' in Bradford to be circumcised.

Authorities turn a blind eye, for fear of being thought racist in 'the community'.

330 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
it is to allow the Amish to educate their own children in their own
way, and protect them from the corrupting influence of modernity.

But, we surely want to ask, shouldn't the children themselves have
some say in the matter?

The Supreme Court was asked to rule in 1972, when some

Amish parents in Wisconsin withdrew their children from high
school. The very idea of education beyond a certain age was
contrary to Amish religious values, and scientific education
especially so. The State of Wisconsin took the parents to court,
claiming that the children were being deprived of their right to an
education. After passing up through the courts, the case eventually
reached the United States Supreme Court, which handed down a
split (6:1) decision in favour of the parents.142 The majority opinion,
written by Chief Justice Warren Burger, included the following: 'As
the record shows, compulsory school attendance to age 16 for

Amish children carries with it a very real threat of undermining the

Amish community and religious practice as they exist today; they
must either abandon belief and be assimilated into society at large,
or be forced to migrate to some other and more tolerant region.'

Justice William O. Douglas's minority opinion was that the
children themselves should have been consulted. Did they really
want to cut short their education? Did they, indeed, really want to
stay in the Amish religion? Nicholas Humphrey would have gone
further. Even if the children had been asked and had expressed a
preference for the Amish religion, can we suppose that they would
have done so if they had been educated and informed about the
available alternatives? For this to be plausible, shouldn't there be
examples of young people from the outside world voting with their
feet and volunteering to join the Amish? Justice Douglas went fur-
ther in a slightly different direction. He saw no particular reason to
give the religious views of parents special status in deciding how far
they should be allowed to deprive their children of education. If
religion is grounds for exemption, might there not be secular beliefs
that also qualify?

The majority of the Supreme Court drew a parallel with some of
the positive values of monastic orders, whose presence in our
society arguably enriches it. But, as Humphrey points out, there is
a crucial difference. Monks volunteer for the monastic life of their

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 3 3 1
own free will. Amish children never volunteered to be Amish; they
were born into it and they had no choice.

There is something breathtakingly condescending, as well as
inhumane, about the sacrificing of anyone, especially children, on
the altar of 'diversity' and the virtue of preserving a variety of
religious traditions. The rest of us are happy with our cars and
computers, our vaccines and antibiotics. But you quaint little
people with your bonnets and breeches, your horse buggies, your
archaic dialect and your earth-closet privies, you enrich our lives.

Of course you must be allowed to trap your children with you in
your seventeenth-century time warp, otherwise something irretriev-
able would be lost to us: a part of the wonderful diversity of human
culture. A small part of me can see something in this. But the larger
part is made to feel very queasy indeed.

AN EDUCATIONAL SCANDAL

The Prime Minister of my country, Tony Blair, invoked 'diversity'

when challenged in the House of Commons by Jenny Tonge MP to
justify government subsidy of a school in the north-east of England
that (almost uniquely in Britain) teaches literal biblical creationism.

Mr Blair replied that it would be unfortunate if concerns about that
issue were to interfere with our getting 'as diverse a school system
as we properly can'.143 The school in question, Emmanuel College
in Gateshead, is one of the 'city academies' set up in a proud
initiative of the Blair government. Rich benefactors are encouraged
to put up a relatively small sum of money (£2 million in the case of

Emmanuel), which buys a much larger sum of government money

(£20 million for the school, plus running costs and salaries in
perpetuity), and also buys the benefactor the right to control the ethos
of the school, the appointment of a majority of the school gover-
nors, the policy for exclusion or inclusion of pupils, and much else.

Emmanuel's 10 per cent benefactor is Sir Peter Vardy, a wealthy
car "salesman with a creditable desire to give today's children the
education he wishes he had had, and a less creditable desire to
imprint his personal religious convictions upon them.* Vardy has

* H. L. Mencken was prophetic when he wrote: 'Deep within the heart of every
evangelist lies the wreck of a car salesman.'

332 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
unfortunately become embroiled with a clique of American-
inspired fundamentalist teachers, led by Nigel McQuoid, sometime
headmaster of Emmanuel and now director of a whole consortium
of Vardy schools. The level of McQuoid's scientific understanding
can be judged from his belief that the world is less than ten thou-
sand years old, and also from the following quotation: 'But to think
that we just evolved from a bang, that we used to be monkeys, that
seems unbelievable when you look at the complexity of the human
body . . . If you tell children there is no purpose to their life - that
they are just a chemical mutation - that doesn't build self-esteem.'144

No scientist has ever suggested that a child is a 'chemical
mutation'. The use of the phrase in such a context is illiterate non-
sense, on a par with the declarations of 'Bishop' Wayne Malcolm,
leader of the Christian Life City church in Hackney, east London,
who, according to the Guardian of 18 April 2006, 'disputes the
scientific evidence for evolution'. Malcolm's understanding of the
evidence he disputes can be gauged from his statement that 'There
is clearly an absence in the fossil record for intermediate levels of
development. If a frog turned into a monkey, shouldn't you have
lots of fronkies?'

Well, science is not Mr McQuoid's subject either, so we should,
in fairness, turn to his head of science, Stephen Layfield, instead.

On 21 September 2001, Mr Layfield gave a lecture at Emmanuel

College on 'The Teaching of Science: A Biblical Perspective'. The
text of the lecture was posted on a Christian website (www.

christian.org.uk). But you won't find it there now. The Christian

Institute removed the lecture the very day after I had called
attention to it in an article in the Daily Telegraph on 18 March

2002, where I subjected it to a critical dissection.145 It is hard, how-
ever, to delete something permanently from the World Wide Web.

Search engines achieve their speed partly by keeping caches of
information, and these inevitably persist for a while even after the
originals have been deleted. An alert British journalist, Andrew

Brown, the Independent's first religious affairs correspondent,
promptly located the Layfield lecture, downloaded it from the

Google cache and posted it, safe from deletion, on his own website,
http://www.darwinwars.com/lunatic/liars/layfield.html. You will
notice that the words chosen by Brown for the URL make enter-

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 333.

taining reading in themselves. They lose their power to amuse,
however, when we look at the content of the lecture itself.

Incidentally, when a curious reader wrote to Emmanuel College
to ask why the lecture had been removed from the website, he
received the following disingenuous reply from the school, again
recorded by Andrew Brown:

Emmanuel College has been at the centre of a debate
regarding the teaching of creation in schools. At a
practical level Emmanuel College has had a huge number
of press calls. This has involved a considerable amount of
time for the Principal and senior Directors of the College.

All of these people have other jobs to do. In order to assist
we have temporarily removed a lecture by Stephen

Layfield from our website.

Of course, the school officials may well have been too busy to
explain to journalists their stance on teaching creationism. But why,
then, remove from their website the text of a lecture that does
precisely that, and to which they could have referred the journalists,
thereby saving themselves a great deal of time? No, they removed
their head of science's lecture because they recognized that they had
something to hide. The following paragraph is from the beginning
of his lecture:

Let us state then right from the start that we reject the
notion popularised, perhaps inadvertently, by Francis

Bacon in the 17th century that there are 'Two Books' (i.e.

the Book of nature & the Scriptures) which may be mined
independently for truth. Rather, we stand firm upon the
bare proposition that God has spoken authoritatively and
inerrantly in the pages of holy Scripture. However fragile,
old-fashioned or naive this assertion may ostensibly
appear, especially to an unbelieving, TV-drunk modern
culture, we can be sure that it is as robust a foundation as
it is possible to lay down and build upon.

You have to keep pinching yourself. You are not dreaming. This

334 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
is not some preacher in a tent in Alabama but the head of science
at a school into which the British government is pouring money,
and which is Tony Blair's pride and joy. A devout Christian himself,

Mr Blair in 2004 performed the ceremonial opening of one of the
later additions to the Vardy fleet of schools.146 Diversity may be a
virtue, but this is diversity gone mad.

Layfield proceeds to itemize the comparison between science
and scripture, concluding, in every case where there seems to be a
conflict, that scripture is to be preferred. Noting that earth science
is now included in the national curriculum, Layfield says, 'It would
seem particularly prudent for all who deliver this aspect of the
course to familiarise themselves with the Flood geology papers of

Whitcomb & Morris.' Yes, 'Flood geology' means what you think
it means. We're talking Noah's Ark here. Noah's Ark! - when the
children could be learning the spine-tingling fact that Africa and

South America were once joined, and have drawn apart at the speed
with which fingernails grow. Here's more from Layfield (the head
of science) on Noah's flood as the recent and rapid explanation for
phenomena which, according to real geological evidence, took
hundreds of millions of years to grind out:

We must acknowledge within our grand geophysical
paradigm the historicity of a world-wide flood as outlined
in Gen 6-10. If the Biblical narrative is secure and the listed
genealogies (e.g. Gen 5; 1 Chro 1; Matt 1 & Lu 3) are sub-
stantially full, we must reckon that this global catastrophe
took place in the relatively recent past. Its effects are every-
where abundantly apparent. Principal evidence is found in
the fossil-laden sedimentary rocks, the extensive reserves of
hydrocarbon fuels (coal, oil and gas) and the 'legendary'

accounts of just such a great flood common to various
population groups world-wide. The feasibility of maintain-
ing an ark full of representative creatures for a year until the
waters had sufficiently receded has been well documented
by, among others, John Woodmorrappe.

In a way this is even worse than the utterances of know-nothings
like Nigel McQuoid or Bishop Wayne Malcolm quoted above,

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 3 3 5
because Layfield is educated in science. Here's another astonishing
passage::

As we stated at the beginning, Christians, with very good
reason, reckon the Scriptures of the Old & New

Testaments a reliable guide concerning just what we are to
believe. They are not merely religious documents. They
provide us with a true account of Earth history which we
ignore at our peril.

The implication that the scriptures provide a literal account of
geological history would make any reputable theologian wince. My
friend Richard Harries, Bishop of Oxford, and I wrote a joint letter
to Tony Blair, and we got it signed by eight bishops and nine senior
scientists.147 The nine scientists included the then President of the

Royal Society (previously Tony Blair's chief scientific adviser), both
the biological and physical secretaries of the Royal Society,
the Astronomer Royal (now President of the Royal Society), the
director of the Natural History Museum, and Sir David

Attenborough, perhaps the most respected man in England. The
bishops included one Roman Catholic and seven Anglican bishops

- senior religious leaders from all around England. We received a
perfunctory and inadequate reply from the Prime Minister's office,
referring to the school's good examination results and its good
report from the official schools inspection agency, OFSTED. It
apparently didn't occur to Mr Blair that, if the OFSTED inspectors
give a rave report to a school whose head of science teaches that the
entire universe began after the domestication of the dog, there just
might be something a teeny weeny bit wrong with the standards of
the inspectorate.

Perhaps the most disturbing section of Stephen Layfield's lecture
is his concluding 'What can be done?', where he considers the
tactics to be employed by those teachers wishing to introduce
fundamentalist Christianity into the science classroom. For
example, he urges science teachers to
note every occasion when an evolutionary/old-earth
paradigm (millions or billions of years) is explicitly

336 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
mentioned or implied by a text-book, examination
question or visitor and courteously point out the fallibility
of the statement. Wherever possible, we must give the
alternative (always better) Biblical explanation of the
same data. We shall look at a few examples from each of

Physics, Chemistry & Biology in due course.

The rest of Layfield's lecture is nothing less than a propaganda
manual, a resource for religious teachers of biology, chemistry and
physics who wish, while remaining just inside the guidelines of the
national curriculum, to subvert evidence-based science education
and replace it with biblical scripture.

On 15 April 2006, James Naughtie, one of the BBC's most
experienced anchormen, interviewed Sir Peter Vardy on radio. The
main subject of the interview was a police investigation of
allegations, denied by Vardy, that bribes - knighthoods and peerages

- had been offered by the Blair government to rich men, in an
attempt to get them to subscribe to the city academies scheme.

Naughtie also asked Vardy about the creationism issue, and Vardy
categorically denied that Emmanuel promotes young-Earth cre-
ationism to its pupils. One of Emmanuel's alumni, Peter French, has
equally categorically stated,148 'We were taught that the earth was

6000 years old.'* Who is telling the truth here? Well, we don't know,
but Stephen Layfield's lecture lays out his policy for teaching
science pretty candidly. Has Vardy never read Layfield's very explicit
manifesto? Does he really not know what his head of science has
been up to? Peter Vardy made his money selling used cars. Would
you buy one from him? And would you, like Tony Blair, sell him a
school for 10 per cent of its price - throwing in an offer to pay all
his running costs into the bargain? Let's be charitable to Blair and
assume that he, at least, has not read the Layfield lecture. I suppose it
is too much to hope that his attention may now be drawn to it.

Headmaster McQuoid offered a defence of what he clearly saw
as his school's open-mindedness, which is remarkable for its
patronizing complacency:

the best example I can give of what it is like here is a sixth-
form philosophy lecture I was giving. Shaquille was sitting

* To get an idea of the scale of this error, it is equivalent to believing that the
distance from New York to San Francisco is 700 yards.

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 3 3 7
there and he says, 'The Koran is correct and true.' And

Clare, over here, says, 'No, the Bible is true.' So we talked
about the similarities between what they say and the
places where they disagree. And we agreed that they could
not both be true. And eventually I said, 'Sorry Shaquille,
you are wrong, it is the Bible that is true.' And he said,

'Sorry Mr McQuoid, you are wrong, it is the Koran.' And
they went on to lunch and carried on discussing it there.

That's what we want. We want children to know why it is
they believe what they believe and to defend it.149

What a charming picture! Shaquille and Clare went to lunch
together, vigorously arguing their cases and defending their in-
compatible beliefs. But is it really so charming? Isn't it actually
rather a deplorable picture that Mr McQuoid has painted? Upon
what, after all, did Shaquille and Clare base their argument? What
cogent evidence was each one able to bring to bear, in their
vigorous and constructive debate? Clare and Shaquille each simply
asserted that her or his holy book was superior, and that was that.

That is apparently all they said, and that, indeed, is all you can say
when you have been taught that truth comes from scripture rather
than from evidence. Clare and Shaquille and their fellows were not
being educated. They were being let down by their school, and their
school principal was abusing, not their bodies, but their minds.

CONSCIOUSNESS-RAISING AGAIN

And now, here's another charming picture. At Christmas-time one
year my daily newspaper, the Independent, was looking for a
seasonal image and found a heart-warmingly ecumenical one at a
school nativity play. The Three Wise Men were played by, as the
caption glowingly said, Shadbreet (a Sikh), Musharaff (a Muslim)

and Adele (a Christian), all aged four.

Charming? Heart-warming? No, it is not, it is neither; it is
grotesque. How could any decent person think it right to label four-
year-old children with the cosmic and theological opinions of their

338 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
parents? To see this, imagine an identical photograph, with the
caption changed as follows: 'Shadbreet (a Keynesian), Musharaff (a

Monetarist) and Adele (a Marxist), all aged four.' Wouldn't this be
a candidate for irate letters of protest? It certainly should be. Yet,
because of the weirdly privileged status of religion, not a squeak
was heard, nor is it ever heard on any similar occasion. Just imagine
the outcry if the caption had read, 'Shadbreet (an Atheist),

Musharaff (an Agnostic) and Adele (a Secular Humanist), all aged
four.' Mightn't the parents actually be investigated to see if they
were fit to bring up children? In Britain, where we lack a con-
stitutional separation between church and state, atheist parents
usually go with the flow and let schools teach their children what-
ever religion prevails in the culture. 'The-Brights.net' (an American
initiative to rebrand atheists as 'Brights' in the same way as homo-
sexuals successfully rebranded themselves as 'gays') is scrupulous in
setting out the rules for children to sign up: 'The decision to be a

Bright must be the child's. Any youngster who is told he or she
must, or should, be a Bright can NOT be a Bright.' Can you even
begin to imagine a church or mosque issuing such a self-denying
ordinance? But shouldn't they be compelled to do so? Incidentally,

I signed up to the Brights, partly because I was genuinely curious
whether such a word could be memetically engineered into the
language. I don't know, and would like to, whether the trans-
mutation of 'gay' was deliberately engineered or whether it just
happened.150 The Brights campaign got off to a shaky start when it
was furiously denounced by some atheists, petrified of being
branded 'arrogant'. The Gay Pride movement, fortunately, suffers
from no such false modesty, which may be why it succeeded.

In an earlier chapter, I generalized the theme of 'consciousness-
raising', starting with the achievement of feminists in making us
flinch when we hear a phrase like 'men of goodwill' instead of

'people of goodwill'. Here I want to raise consciousness in another
way. I think we should all wince when we hear a small child being
labelled as belonging to some particular religion or another. Small
children are too young to decide their views on the origins of the
cosmos, of life and of morals. The very sound of the phrase

'Christian child' or 'Muslim child' should grate like fingernails on
a blackboard.

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 339

Here is a report, dated 3 September 2001, from the Irish Radio
station KPFT-FM.

Catholic schoolgirls faced protests from Loyalists as they
attempted to enter the Holy Cross Girls' Primary School
on the Ardoyne Road in north Belfast. Royal Ulster

Constabulary (RUC) officers and British Army (BA)

soldiers had to clear the protestors who were attempting
to blockade the school. Crash barriers were erected to
allow the children to get through the protest to the school.

Loyalists jeered and shouted sectarian abuse as the
children, some as young as four years of age, were
escorted by the parents into the school. As children and
parents entered the front gate of the school Loyalists
threw bottles and stones.

Naturally, any decent person will wince at the ordeal of these
unfortunate schoolgirls. I am trying to encourage us to wince, too,
at the very idea of labelling them 'Catholic schoolgirls' at all.

('Loyalists', as I pointed out in Chapter 1, is the mealy-mouthed

Northern Ireland euphemism for Protestants, just as 'Nationalists'

is the euphemism for Catholics. People who do not hesitate to
brand children 'Catholics' or 'Protestants' stop short of applying
those same religious labels - far more appropriately - to adult
terrorists and mobs.)

Our society, including the non-religious sector, has accepted the
preposterous idea that it is normal and right to indoctrinate tiny
children in the religion of their parents, and to slap religious labels
on them - 'Catholic child', 'Protestant child', 'Jewish child',

'Muslim child', etc. - although no other comparable labels: no
conservative children, no liberal children, no Republican children,
no Democrat children. Please, please raise your consciousness
about this, and raise the roof whenever you hear it happening. A
child is not a Christian child, not a Muslim child, but a child of

Christian parents or a child of Muslim parents. This latter
nomenclature, by the way, would be an excellent piece of
consciousness-raising for the children themselves. A child who is
told she is a 'child of Muslim parents' will immediately realize that

340 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
religion is something for her to choose - or reject - when she
becomes old enough to do so.

A good case can indeed be made for the educational benefits of
teaching comparative religion. Certainly my own doubts were first
aroused, at the age of about nine, by the lesson (which came not
from school but from my parents) that the Christian religion in
which I was brought up was only one of many mutually incompat-
ible belief-systems. Religious apologists themselves realize this
and it often frightens them. After that nativity play story in the

Independent, not a single letter to the Editor complained of
the religious labelling of the four-year-olds. The only negative letter
came from 'The Campaign for Real Education', whose spokesman,

Nick Seaton, said multi-faith religious education was extremely
dangerous because 'Children these days are taught that all religions
are of equal worth, which means that their own has no special
value.' Yes indeed; that is exactly what it means. Well might this
spokesman worry. On another occasion, the same individual said,

'To present all faiths as equally valid is wrong. Everybody is entitled
to think their faith is superior to others, be they Hindus, Jews,

Muslims or Christians - otherwise what's the point in having
faith?'151

What indeed? And what transparent nonsense this is! These
faiths are mutually incompatible. Otherwise what is the point of
thinking your faith superior? Most of them, therefore, cannot be

'superior to others'. Let children learn about different faiths, let
them notice their incompatibility, and let them draw their own con-
clusions about the consequences of that incompatibility. As for
whether any are 'valid', let them make up their own minds when
they are old enough to do so.

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AS A PART OF

LITERARY CULTURE

I must admit that even I am a little taken aback at the biblical
ignorance commonly displayed by people educated in more recent

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 341
decades than I was. Or maybe it isn't a decade thing. As long ago
as 1954, according to Robert Hinde in his thoughtful book Why

Gods Persist, a Gallup poll in the United States of America found
the following. Three-quarters of Catholics and Protestants could
not name a single Old Testament prophet. More than two-thirds
didn't know who preached the Sermon on the Mount. A substantial
number thought that Moses was one of Jesus's twelve apostles.

That, to repeat, was in the United States, which is dramatically
more religious than other parts of the developed world.

The King James Bible of 1611 - the Authorized Version -
includes passages of outstanding literary merit in its own right, for
example the Song of Songs, and the sublime Ecclesiastes (which I
am told is pretty good in the original Hebrew too). But the main
reason the English Bible needs to be part of our education is that it
is a major source book for literary culture. The same applies to the
legends of the Greek and Roman gods, and we learn about them
without being asked to believe in them. Here is a quick list of
biblical, or Bible-inspired, phrases and sentences that occur
commonly in literary or conversational English, from great poetry
to hackneyed cliche, from proverb to gossip.

Be fruitful and multiply • East of Eden • Adam's Rib •

Am I my brother's keeper? • The mark of Cain • As old
as Methuselah • A mess of potage • Sold his birthright •

Jacob's ladder • Coat of many colours • Amid the alien
corn • Eyeless in Gaza • The fat of the land • The fatted
calf • Stranger in a strange land • Burning bush • A land
flowing with milk and honey • Let my people go • Flesh
pots • An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth • Be
sure your sin will find you out • The apple of his eye •

The stars in their courses • Butter in a lordly dish • The
hosts of Midian • Shibboleth • Out of the strong came
forth sweetness • He smote them hip and thigh •

Philistine • A man after his own heart • Like David and

Jonathan • Passing the love of women • How are the
mighty fallen? • Ewe lamb • Man of Belial • Jezebel •

Queen of Sheba • Wisdom of Solomon • The half was
not told me • Girded up his loins • Drew a bow at a

342 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
venture • Job's comforters • The patience of Job • I am
escaped with the skin of my teeth • The price of wisdom
is above rubies • Leviathan • Go to the ant thou
sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise • Spare the
rod and spoil the child • A word in season • Vanity of
vanities • To everything there is a season, and a time to
every purpose • The race is not to the swift, nor the
battle to the strong • Of making many books there is no
end • I am the rose of Sharon • A garden inclosed • The
little foxes • Many waters cannot quench love • Beat
their swords into plowshares • Grind the faces of the
poor • The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the
leopard shall lie down with the kid • Let us eat and
drink; for tomorrow we shall die • Set thine house in
order • A voice crying in the wilderness • No peace for
the wicked • See eye to eye • Cut off out of the land of
the living • Balm in Gilead • Can the leopard change his
spots? • The parting of the ways • A Daniel in the lions'

den • They have sown the wind, and they shall reap the
whirlwind • Sodom and Gomorrah • Man shall not live
by bread alone • Get thee behind me Satan • The salt of
the earth • Hide your light under a bushel • Turn the
other cheek • Go the extra mile • Moth and rust doth
corrupt • Cast your pearls before swine • Wolf in sheep's
clothing • Weeping and gnashing of teeth • Gadarene
swine • New wine in old bottles • Shake off the dust of
your feet • He that is not with me is against me •

Judgement of Solomon • Fell upon stony ground • A
prophet is not without honour, save in his own country •

The crumbs from the table • Sign of the times • Den of
thieves • Pharisee • Whited sepulchre • Wars and
rumours of wars • Good and faithful servant • Separate
the sheep from the goats • I wash my hands of it • The
sabbath was made for man, and not man for the sabbath

• Suffer the little children • The widow's mite •

Physician heal thyself • Good Samaritan • Passed by on
the other side • Grapes of wrath • Lost sheep • Prodigal
son • A great gulf fixed • Whose shoe latchet I am not

C H I L D H O O D , A B U S E A N D R E L I G I O N 3 4 3
worthy to unloose • Cast the first stone • Jesus wept •

Greater love hath no man than this • Doubting Thomas

• Road to Damascus • A law unto himself • Through a
glass darkly • Death, where is thy sting? • A thorn in the
flesh • Fallen from grace • Filthy lucre • The root of all
evil • Fight the good fight • All flesh is as grass • The
weaker vessel • I am Alpha and Omega • Armageddon •

De profundis • Quo vadis • Rain on the just and on the
unjust

Every one of these idioms, phrases or cliches comes directly from
the King James Authorized Version of the Bible. Surely ignorance of
the Bible is bound to impoverish one's appreciation of English
literature? And not just solemn and serious literature. The follow-
ing rhyme by Lord Justice Bowen is ingeniously witty:

The rain it raineth on the just,

And also on the unjust fella.

But chiefly on the just, because

The unjust hath the just's umbrella.

But the enjoyment is muffled if you can't take the allusion to

Matthew 5: 45 ('For he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on
the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust'). And the
fine point of Eliza Dolittle's fantasy in My Fair Lady would escape
anybody ignorant of John the Baptist's end:

'Thanks a lot, King,' says I in a manner well bred,

'But all I want is 'Enry 'Iggins' 'ead.'

P. G. Wodehouse is, for my money, the greatest writer of light
comedy in English, and I bet fully half my list of biblical phrases
will be found as allusions within his pages. (A Google search will
not find all of them, however. It will miss the derivation of the
short-story title 'The Aunt and the Sluggard', from Proverbs 6: 6.)

The Wodehouse canon is rich in other biblical phrases, not in my
list above and not incorporated into the language as idioms or
proverbs. Listen to Bertie Wooster's evocation of what it is like to

344 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
wake up with a bad hangover: 'I had been dreaming that some
bounder was driving spikes through my head - not just ordinary
spikes, as used by Jael the wife of Heber, but red-hot ones.' Bertie
himself was immensely proud of his only scholastic achievement,
the prize he once earned for scripture knowledge.

What is true of comic writing in English is more obviously true
of serious literature. Naseeb Shaheen's tally of more than thirteen
hundred biblical references in Shakespeare's works is widely cited
and very believable.152 The Bible Literacy Report published in

Fairfax, Virginia (admittedly financed by the infamous Templeton

Foundation) provides many examples, and cites overwhelming
agreement by teachers of English literature that biblical literacy is
essential to full appreciation of their subject.153 Doubtless the
equivalent is true of French, German, Russian, Italian, Spanish and
other great European literatures. And, for speakers of Arabic and

Indian languages, knowledge of the Qur'an or the Bhagavad Gita is
presumably just as essential for full appreciation of their literary
heritage. Finally, to round off the list, you can't appreciate Wagner

(whose music, as has been wittily said, is better than it sounds)

without knowing your way around the Norse gods.

Let me not labour the point. I have probably said enough to con-
vince at least my older readers that an atheistic world-view provides
no justification for cutting the Bible, and other sacred books, out
of our education. And of course we can retain a sentimental loyalty
to the cultural and literary traditions of, say, Judaism, Anglicanism
or Islam, and even participate in religious rituals such as marriages
and funerals, without buying into the supernatural beliefs that
historically went along with those traditions. We can give up belief
in God while not losing touch with a treasured heritage.

CHAPTER 10

A much needed
gap?

What can be more soul shaking than peering through a 100-inch
telescope at a distant galaxy, holding a 100-million-year-old fossil
or a 500,000-year-old stone tool in one's hand, standing before
the immense chasm of space and time that is the Grand Canyon,
or listening to a scientist who gazed upon the face of the universe's
creation and did not blinki That is deep and sacred science.

MICHAEL SHERMER

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 347

'This book fills a much needed gap.' The jest works because we
simultaneously understand the two opposite meanings. Incidentally,

I thought it was an invented witticism but, to my surprise, I find
that it has actually been used, in all innocence, by publishers. See
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/kis/schools/hums/french/pgr/tqr.html for a book
that 'fills a much needed gap in the literature available on the post-
structuralist movement'. It seems deliciously appropriate that this
avowedly superfluous book is all about Michel Foucault, Roland

Barthes, Julia Kristeva and other icons of haute francophonyism.

Does religion fill a much needed gap? It is often said that there
is a God-shaped gap in the brain which needs to be filled: we have
a psychological need for God - imaginary friend, father, big
brother, confessor, confidant - and the need has to be satisfied
whether God really exists or not. But could it be that God clutters
up a gap that we'd be better off filling with something else? Science,
perhaps? Art? Human friendship? Humanism? Love of this life in
the real world, giving no credence to other lives beyond the grave?

A love of nature, or what the great entomologist E. O. Wilson has
called Biophilia}

Religion has at one time or another been thought to fill four
main roles in human life: explanation, exhortation, consolation and
inspiration. Historically, religion aspired to explain our own
existence and the nature of the universe in which we find ourselves.

In this role it is now completely superseded by science, and I have
dealt with it in Chapter 4. By exhortation I mean moral instruction
on how we ought to behave, and I covered that in Chapters 6 and

7.1 have not so far done justice to consolation and inspiration, and
this final chapter will briefly deal with them. As a preliminary to
consolation itself, I want to begin with the childhood phenomenon
of the 'imaginary friend', which I believe has affinities with
religious belief.

BlNKER

Christopher Robin, I presume, did not believe that Piglet and

Winnie the Pooh really spoke to him. But was Binker different?

348 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Binker - what I call him - is a secret of my own,

And Binker is the reason why I never feel alone.

Playing in the nursery, sitting on the stair,

Whatever I am busy at, Binker will be there.

Oh, Daddy is clever, he's a clever sort of man,

And Mummy is the best since the world began,

And Nanny is Nanny, and I call her Nan -

But they can't See Binker.

Binker's always talking, 'cos I'm teaching him to speak

He sometimes likes to do it in a funny sort of squeak,

And he sometimes likes to do it in a hoodling sort of roar . . .

And I have to do it for him 'cos his throat is rather sore.

Oh, Daddy is clever, he's a clever sort of man,

And Mummy knows all that anybody can,

And Nanny is Nanny, and I call her Nan -

But they don't Know Binker.

Binker's brave as lions when we're running in the park;

Binker's brave as tigers when we're lying in the dark;

Binker's brave as elephants. He never, never cries . . .

Except (like other people) when the soap gets in his eyes.

Oh, Daddy is Daddy, he's a Daddy sort of man,

And Mummy is as Mummy as anybody can,

And Nanny is Nanny, and I call her Nan . . .

But they're not Like Binker.

Binker isn't greedy, but he does like things to eat,

So I have to say to people when they're giving me a sweet,

'Oh, Binker wants a chocolate, so could you give me two?'

And then I eat it for him, 'cos his teeth are rather new.

Well, I'm very fond of Daddy, but he hasn't time to play,

And I'm very fond of Mummy, but she sometimes goes away,

And I'm often cross with Nanny when she wants to brush my
hair . ..

But Binker's always Binker, and is certain to be there.

A. A. MILNE, NOW We Are Six*

Is the imaginary-friend phenomenon a higher illusion, in a
different category from ordinary childhood make-believe? My own
experience is not much help here. Like many parents, my mother

Reproduced by permission of the A. A. Milne Estate.

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 349
kept a notebook of my childish sayings. In addition to simple pre-
tendings (now I'm the man in the moon . . . an accelerator . . . a

Babylonian) I was evidently fond of second-order pretendings (now

I'm an owl pretending to be a waterwheel) which might be reflexive

(now I'm a little boy pretending to be Richard). I never once
believed I really was any of those things, and I think that is
normally true of childhood make-believe games. But I didn't have a

Binker. If the testimony of their adult selves is to be believed, at
least some of those normal children who have imaginary friends
really do believe they exist, and, in some cases, see them as clear
and vivid hallucinations. I suspect that the Binker phenomenon of
childhood may be a good model for understanding theistic belief in
adults. I do not know whether psychologists have studied it from
this point of view, but it would be a worthwhile piece of research.

Companion and confidant, a Binker for life: that is surely one role
that God plays - one gap that might be left if God were to go.

Another child, a girl, had a 'little purple man', who seemed to
her a real and visible presence, and who would manifest himself,
sparkling out of the air, with a gentle tinkling sound. He visited her
regularly, especially when she felt lonely, but with decreasing
frequency as she grew older. On a particular day just before she
went to kindergarten, the little purple man came to her, heralded by
his usual tinkling fanfare, and announced that he would not be
visiting her any more. This saddened her, but the little purple man
told her that she was getting bigger now and wouldn't need him in
the future. He must leave her now, so that he could look after other
children. He promised her that he would come back to her if ever
she really needed him. He did return to her, many years later in a
dream, when she had a personal crisis and was trying to decide
what to do with her life. The door of her bedroom opened and a
cartload of books appeared, pushed into the room by . . . the little
purple man. She interpreted this as advice that she should go to
university - advice that she took and later judged to be good. The
story makes me almost tearful, and it brings me as close as I shall
probably come to understanding the consoling and counselling role
of imaginary gods in people's lives. A being may exist only in the
imagination, yet still seem completely real to the child, and still give
real comfort and good advice. Perhaps even better: imaginary

350 T H E GOD D E L U S I O N
friends - and imaginary gods - have the time and patience to devote
all their attention to the sufferer. And they are much cheaper than
psychiatrists or professional counsellors.

Did gods, in their role as consolers and counsellors, evolve from
binkers, by a sort of psychological 'paedomorphosis'? Paedo-
morphosis is the retention into adulthood of childhood
characteristics. Pekinese dogs have paedomorphic faces: the adults
look like puppies. It is a well-known pattern in evolution, widely
accepted as important for the development of such human
characteristics as our bulbous forehead and short jaws.

Evolutionists have described us as juvenile apes, and it is certainly
true that juvenile chimpanzees and gorillas look more like humans
than adult ones do. Could religions have evolved originally by
gradual postponement, over generations, of the moment in life
when children gave up their binkers - just as we slowed down,
during evolution, the flattening of our foreheads and the protrusion
of our jaws?

I suppose, for completeness, we should consider the reverse pos-
sibility. Rather than gods evolving from ancestral binkers, could
binkers have evolved from ancestral gods? This seems to me less
likely. I was led to think about it while reading the American psy-
chologist Julian Jaynes's The Origin of Consciousness in the

Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, a book that is as strange as its
title suggests. It is one of those books that is either complete rub-
bish or a work of consummate genius, nothing in between!

Probably the former, but I'm hedging my bets.

Jaynes notes that many people perceive their own thought
processes as a kind of dialogue between the 'self and another
internal protagonist inside the head. Nowadays we understand that
both 'voices' are our own - or if we don't we are treated as mentally
ill. This happened, briefly, to Evelyn Waugh. Never one to mince
words, Waugh remarked to a friend: T haven't seen you for a long
time, but then I've seen so few people because - did you know? -1
went mad.' After his recovery, Waugh wrote a novel, The Ordeal of

Gilbert Pinfold, which described his hallucinatory period, and the
voices that he heard.

Jaynes's suggestion is that some time before 1000 BC people in
general were unaware that the second voice - the Gilbert

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 351

Pinfold voice - came from within themselves. They thought
the Pinfold voice was a god: Apollo, say, or Astarte or Yahweh or,
more probably, a minor household god, offering them advice or
orders. Jaynes even located the voices of the gods in the opposite
hemisphere of the brain from the one that controls audible
speech. The 'breakdown of the bicameral' mind was, for Jaynes, a
historical transition. It was the moment in history when it dawned
on people that the external voices that they seemed to be hearing
were really internal. Jaynes even goes so far as to define this
historical transition as the dawning of human consciousness.

There is an ancient Egyptian inscription about the creator god

Ptah, which describes the various other gods as variations of Ptah's

'voice' or 'tongue'. Modern translations reject the literal 'voice' and
interpret the other gods as 'objectified conceptions of [Ptah's]

mind'. Jaynes dismisses such educated readings, preferring to take
the literal meaning seriously. The gods were hallucinated voices,
speaking inside people's heads. Jaynes further suggests that such
gods evolved from memories of dead kings, who still, in a manner
of speaking, retained control over their subjects via imagined voices
in their heads. Whether or not you find his thesis plausible, Jaynes's
book is intriguing enough to earn its mention in a book on religion.

Now, to the possibility I raised of borrowing from Jaynes to
construct a theory that gods and binkers are developmentally
related, but the opposite way around from the paedomorphosis
theory. It amounts to the suggestion that the breakdown of the
bicameral mind didn't happen suddenly in history, but was a pro-
gressive pulling back into childhood of the moment when
hallucinated voices and apparitions were rumbled as not real. In a
kind of reversal of the paedomorphosis hypothesis, the hallucinated
gods disappeared from adult minds first, then were pulled back
earlier and earlier into childhood, until today they survive only in
the Binker or little purple man phenomenon. The problem with this
version of the theory is that it doesn't explain the persistence of
gods into adulthood today.

It might be better not to treat gods as ancestral to binkers, or
vice versa, but rather to see both as by-products of the same
psychological predisposition. Gods and binkers have in common
the power to comfort, and provide a vivid sounding board for

352 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
trying out ideas. We have not moved far from Chapter 5's psycho-
logical by-product theory of the evolution of religion.

CONSOLATION

It is time to face up to the important role that God plays in
consoling us; and the humanitarian challenge, if he does not exist,
to put something in his place. Many people who concede that God
probably doesn't exist, and that he is not necessary for morality,
still come back with what they often regard as a trump card: the
alleged psychological or emotional need for a god. If you take
religion away, people truculently ask, what are you going to put in
its place? What have you to offer the dying patients, the weeping
bereaved, the lonely Eleanor Rigbys for whom God is their only
friend?

The first thing to say in response to this is something that should
need no saying. Religion's power to console doesn't make it true.

Even if we make a huge concession; even if it were conclusively
demonstrated that belief in God's existence is completely essential
to human psychological and emotional well-being; even if all
atheists were despairing neurotics driven to suicide by relentless
cosmic angst - none of this would contribute the tiniest jot or tittle
of evidence that religious belief is true. It might be evidence in
favour of the desirability of convincing yourself that God exists,
even if he doesn't. As I've already mentioned, Dennett, in Breaking
the Spell, makes the distinction between belief in God and belief in
belief: the belief that it is desirable to believe, even if the belief itself
is false: 'Lord, I believe; help thou mine unbelief (Mark 9: 24). The
faithful are encouraged to profess belief, whether they are con-
vinced by it or not. Maybe if you repeat something often enough,
you will succeed in convincing yourself of its truth. I think we all
know people who enjoy the idea of religious faith, and resent
attacks on it, while reluctantly admitting that they don't have it
themselves.

Since reading of Dennett's distinction, I have found occasion to
use it again and again. It is scarcely an exaggeration to say that the

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 353
majority of atheists I know disguise their atheism behind a pious
facade. They do not believe in anything supernatural themselves,
but retain a vague soft spot for irrational belief. They believe in
belief. It is amazing how many people seemingly cannot tell the
difference between 'X is true' and 'It is desirable that people should
believe that X is true'. Or maybe they don't really fall for this
logical error, but simply rate truth as unimportant compared with
human feelings. I don't want to decry human feelings. But let's be
clear, in any particular conversation, what we are talking about:

feelings, or truth. Both may be important, but they are not the same
thing.

In any case, my hypothetical concession was extravagant and
wrong. I know of no evidence that atheists have any general
tendency towards unhappy, angst-ridden despond. Some atheists
are happy. Others are miserable. Similarly, some Christians, Jews,

Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists are miserable, while others are
happy. There may be statistical evidence bearing on the relationship
between happiness and belief (or unbelief), but I doubt if it is a
strong effect, one way or the other. I find it more interesting to ask
whether there is any good reason to feel depressed if we live with-
out God. I shall end this book by arguing, on the contrary, that it
is an understatement to say that one can lead a happy and fulfilled
life without supernatural religion. First, though, I must examine the
claims of religion to offer consolation.

Consolation, according to the Shorter Oxford Dictionary, is the
alleviation of sorrow or mental distress. I shall divide consolation
into two types.

1. Direct physical consolation. A man stuck for the night on a
bare mountain may find comfort in a large, warm St Bernard
dog, not forgetting, of course, the brandy barrel around its
neck. A weeping child may be consoled by the embrace of
strong arms wrapped around her and reassuring words
whispered in her ear.

2. Consolation by discovery of a previously unappreciated fact,
or a previously undiscovered way of looking at existing
facts. A woman whose husband has been killed in war may be

354 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
consoled by the discovery that she is pregnant by him, or that
he died a hero. We can also get consolation through
discovering a new way of thinking about a situation. A
philosopher points out that there is nothing special about the
moment when an old man dies. The child that he once was

'died' long ago, not by suddenly ceasing to live but by growing
up. Each of Shakespeare's seven ages of man 'dies' by slowly
morphing into the next. From this point of view, the moment
when the old man finally expires is no different from the slow

'deaths' throughout his life.154 A man who does not relish the
prospect of his own death may find this changed perspective
consoling. Or maybe not, but it is an example of consolation
through reflection. Mark Twain's dismissal of the fear of death
is another: 'I do not fear death. I had been dead for billions
and billions of years before I was born, and had not suffered
the slightest inconvenience from it.' The apercu changes
nothing about the fact of our inevitable death. But we have
been offered a different way of looking at that inevitability and
we may find it consoling. Thomas Jefferson, too, had no fear
of death and he seems to have believed in no kind of afterlife.

By Christopher Hitchens's account, 'As his days began to
wane, Jefferson more than once wrote to friends that he faced
the approaching end without either hope or fear. This was as
much as to say, in the most unmistakable terms, that he was
not a Christian.'

Robust intellects may be ready for the strong meat of Bertrand

Russell's declaration, in his 1925 essay 'What I Believe':

I believe that when I die I shall rot, and nothing of my ego
will survive. I am not young and I love life. But I should
scorn to shiver with terror at the thought of annihilation.

Happiness is nonetheless true happiness because it must
come to an end, nor do thought and love lose their value
because they are not everlasting. Many a man has borne
himself proudly on the scaffold; surely the same pride
should teach us to think truly about man's place in the
world. Even if the open windows of science at first make

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 355
us shiver after the cosy indoor warmth of traditional
humanizing myths, in the end the fresh air brings
vigour, and the great spaces have a splendour of their
own.

I was inspired by this essay of Russell's when I read it in my school
library at the age of about sixteen, but I had forgotten it. It is
possible that I was paying unconscious homage to it when I wrote,
in A Devil's Chaplain in 2003,

There is more than just grandeur in this view of life, bleak
and cold though it can seem from under the security blan-
ket of ignorance. There is deep refreshment to be had
from standing up and facing straight into the strong keen
wind of understanding: Yeats's 'Winds that blow through
the starry ways'.

How does religion compare with, say, science in providing these
two types of consolation? Looking at Type 1 consolation first, it is
entirely plausible that the strong arms of God, even if they are
purely imaginary, could console in just the same kind of way as the
real arms of a friend, or a St Bernard dog with a brandy cask
around its neck. But of course scientific medicine can also offer
comfort - usually more effectively than brandy.

Turning now to Type 2 consolation, it is easy to believe that
religion could be extremely effective. People caught up in a terrible
disaster, such as an earthquake, frequently report that they derive
consolation from the reflection that it is all part of God's
inscrutable plan: no doubt good shall come of it in the fullness of
time. If someone fears death, sincere belief that he has an immortal
soul can be consoling - unless, of course, he thinks he is going to
hell or purgatory. False beliefs can be every bit as consoling as true
ones, right up until the moment of disillusionment. This applies to
non-religious beliefs too. A man with terminal cancer may be
consoled by a doctor who lies to him that he is cured, just as
effectively as another man who is told truthfully that he is cured.

Sincere and wholehearted belief in life after death is even more
immune to disillusionment than belief in a lying doctor. The

356 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
doctor's lie remains effective only until the symptoms become
unmistakable. A believer in life after death can never be ultimately
disillusioned.

Polls suggest that approximately 95 per cent of the population
of the United States believe they will survive their own death. I can't
help wondering how many people who claim such belief really, in
their heart of hearts, hold it. If they were truly sincere, shouldn't
they all behave like the Abbot of Ampleforth? When Cardinal Basil

Hume told him that he was dying, the abbot was delighted for him:

'Congratulations! That's brilliant news. I wish I was coming with
you.'155 The abbot, it seems, really was a sincere believer. But it is
precisely because it is so rare and unexpected that his story catches
our attention, almost provokes our amusement - in a fashion
reminiscent of the cartoon of a young woman carrying a 'Make
love not war' banner, stark naked, and with a bystander exclaim-
ing, 'Now that's what I call sincerity!' Why don't all Christians and

Muslims say something like the abbot when they hear that a friend
is dying? When a devout woman is told by the doctor that she has
only months to live, why doesn't she beam with excited antici-
pation, as if she has just won a holiday in the Seychelles? 'I can't
wait!' Why don't faithful visitors at her bedside shower her with
messages for those that have gone before? 'Do give my love to

Uncle Robert when you see him . . .'

Why don't religious people talk like that when in the presence of
the dying? Could it be that they don't really believe all that stuff
they pretend to believe? Or perhaps they do believe it but fear the
process of dying. With good reason, given that our species is
the only one not allowed to go to the vet to be painlessly put out of
our misery. But in that case, why does the most vocal opposition to
euthanasia and assisted suicide come from the religious? On the

'Abbot of Ampleforth' or 'Holiday in the Seychelles' model of
death, wouldn't you expect that religious people would be the least
likely to cling unbecomingly to earthly life? Yet it is a striking fact
that, if you meet somebody who is passionately opposed to mercy
killing, or passionately against assisted suicide, you can bet a good
sum that they will turn out to be religious. The official reason may
be that all killing is a sin. But why deem it to be a sin if you
sincerely believe you are accelerating a journey to heaven?

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 357

My attitude to assisted suicide, by contrast, takes off from Mark

Twain's observation, already quoted. Being dead will be no
different from being unborn - I shall be just as I was in the time of

William the Conqueror or the dinosaurs or the trilobites. There is
nothing to fear in that. But the process of dying could well be,
depending on our luck, painful and unpleasant - the sort of
experience from which we have become accustomed to being pro-
tected by a general anaesthetic, like having your appendix out. If
your pet is dying in pain, you will be condemned for cruelty if you
do not summon the vet to give him a general anaesthetic from
which he will not come round. But if your doctor performs exactly
the same merciful service for you when you are dying in pain, he
runs the risk of being prosecuted for murder. When I am dying, I
should like my life to be taken out under a general anaesthetic,
exactly as if it were a diseased appendix. But I shall not be allowed
that privilege, because I have the ill-luck to be born a member of

Homo sapiens rather than, for example, Canis familiaris or Felis
catus. At least, that will be the case unless I move to a more en-
lightened place like Switzerland, the Netherlands or Oregon. Why
are such enlightened places so rare? Mostly because of the influence
of religion.

But, it might be said, isn't there an important difference between
having your appendix removed and having your life removed? Not
really; not if you are about to die anyway. And not if you have a
sincere religious belief in life after death. If you have that belief,
dying is just a transition from one life to another. If the transition
is painful, you should no more wish to undergo it without
anaesthetic than you would wish to have your appendix removed
without anaesthetic. It is those of us who see death as terminal
rather than transitional who might naively be expected to resist
euthanasia or assisted suicide. Yet we are the ones who support it.*

In the same vein, what are we to make of the observation of a
senior nurse of my acquaintance, with a lifetime's experience in
running a home for old people, where death is a regular
occurrence? She has noticed over the years that the individuals who

* One study of attitudes to death among American atheists found the following:

50 per cent wanted a memorial celebration of their life; 99 per cent supported
physician-assisted suicide for those who want it, and 75 per cent wanted it for
themselves; 100 per cent wanted no contact with hospital staff who promote reli-
gion. See http://nursestoner.com/myresearch.html.

358 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
are most afraid of death are the religious ones. Her observation
would need to be substantiated statistically but, assuming she is
right, what is going on here? Whatever it is, it doesn't, on the face
of it, speak strongly of religion's power to comfort the dying.* In
the case of Catholics, maybe they are afraid of purgatory? The
saintly Cardinal Hume said farewell to a friend in these words:

'Well, goodbye then. See you in purgatory, I suppose.' What /
suppose is that there was a sceptical twinkle in those kind old eyes.

The doctrine of purgatory offers a preposterous revelation of the
way the theological mind works. Purgatory is a sort of divine Ellis

Island, a Hadean waiting room where dead souls go if their sins
aren't bad enough to send them to hell, but they still need a bit of
remedial checking out and purifying before they can be admitted to
the sin-free-zone of heaven. In medieval times, the Church used
to sell 'indulgences' for money. This amounted to paying for some
number of days' remission from purgatory, and the Church literally

(and with breathtaking presumption) issued signed certificates
specifying the number of days off that had been purchased. The

Roman Catholic Church is an institution for whose gains
the phrase 'ill-gotten' might have been specially invented. And of all
its money-making rip-offs, the selling of indulgences must surely
rank among the greatest con tricks in history, the medieval equiva-
lent of the Nigerian Internet scam but far more successful.

As recently as 1903, Pope Pius X was still able to tabulate the
number of days' remission from purgatory that each rank in
the hierarchy was entitled to grant: cardinals two hundred days,
archbishops a hundred days, bishops a mere fifty days. By his time,
however, indulgences were no longer sold directly for money. Even
in the Middle Ages, money was not the only currency in which you
could buy parole from purgatory. You could pay in prayers too,
either your own before death or the prayers of others on your
behalf, after your death. And money could buy prayers. If you were
rich, you could lay down provision for your soul in perpetuity. My
own Oxford College, New College, was founded in 1379 (it was
new then) by one of that century's great philanthropists, William of

Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester. A medieval bishop could become

* An Australian friend coined a wonderful phrase to describe the tendency for reli-
giosity to increase in old age. Say it with an Australian intonation, going up at the
end like a question: 'Cramming for the final?'

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ! 359
the Bill Gates of the age, controlling the equivalent of the inform-
ation highway (to God), and amassing huge riches. His diocese was
exceptionally large, and Wykeham used his wealth and influence to
found two great educational establishments, one in Winchester and
one in Oxford. Education was important to Wykeham, but, in the
words of the official New College history, published in 1979 to
mark the sixth centenary, the fundamental purpose of the college
was 'as a great chantry to make intercession for the repose of his
soul. He provided for the service of the chapel by ten chaplains,
three clerks and sixteen choristers, and he ordered that they alone
were to be retained if the college's income failed.' Wykeham left

New College in the hands of the Fellowship, a self-electing body
which has been continuously in existence like a single organism for
more than six hundred years. Presumably he trusted us to continue
to pray for his soul through the centuries.

Today the college has only one chaplain* and no clerks, and the
steady century-by-century torrent of prayers for Wykeham in
purgatory has dwindled to a trickle of two prayers per year. The
choristers alone go from strength to strength and their music is,
indeed, magical. Even I feel a twinge of guilt, as a member of that

Fellowship, for a trust betrayed. In the understanding of his own
time, Wykeham was doing the equivalent of a rich man today
making a large down payment to a cryogenics company which
guarantees to freeze your body and keep it insulated from earth-
quakes, civil disorder, nuclear war and other hazards, until some
future time when medical science has learned how to unfreeze it
and cure whatever disease it was dying of. Are we later Fellows of

New College reneging on a contract with our Founder? If so, we are
in good company. Hundreds of medieval benefactors died trusting
that their heirs, well paid to do so, would pray for them in
purgatory. I can't help wondering what proportion of Europe's
medieval treasures of art and architecture started out as down pay-
ments on eternity, in trusts now betrayed.

But what really fascinates me about the doctrine of purgatory is
the evidence that theologians have advanced for it: evidence so
spectacularly weak that it renders even more comical the airy con-
fidence with which it is asserted. The entry on purgatory in the

Catholic Encyclopedia has a section called 'proofs'. The essential

* Female - what would Bishop William have made of that?

360 T H E G O D . D E L U S I O N
evidence for the existence of purgatory is this. If the dead simply
went to heaven or hell on the basis of their sins while on Earth,
there would be no point in praying for them. 'For why pray for the
dead, if there be no belief in the power of prayer to afford solace to
those who as yet are excluded from the sight of God.' And we do
pray for the dead, don't we? Therefore purgatory must exist,
otherwise our prayers would be pointless! Q.E.D. This seriously is
an example of what passes for reasoning in the theological mind.

That remarkable non sequitur is mirrored, on a larger scale, in
another common deployment of the Argument from Consolation.

There must be a God, the argument goes, because, if there were not,
life would be empty, pointless, futile, a desert of meaninglessness
and insignificance. How can it be necessary to point out that the
logic falls at the first fence? Maybe life is empty. Maybe our prayers
for the dead really are pointless. To presume the opposite is to pre-
sume the truth of the very conclusion we seek to prove. The alleged
syllogism is transparently circular. Life without your wife may very
well be intolerable, barren and empty, but this unfortunately
doesn't stop her being dead. There is something infantile in the
presumption that somebody else (parents in the case of children,

God in the case of adults) has a responsibility to give your life
meaning and point. It is all of a piece with the infantilism of those
who, the moment they twist their ankle, look around for someone
to sue. Somebody else must be responsible for my well-being, and
somebody else must be to blame if I am hurt. Is it a similar
infantilism that really lies behind the 'need' for a God? Are we back
to Binker again?

The truly adult view, by contrast, is that our life is as meaning-
ful, as full and as wonderful as we choose to make it. And we can
make it very wonderful indeed. If science gives consolation of a
non-material kind, it merges into my final topic, inspiration.

INSPIRATION

This is a matter of taste or private judgement, which has the slightly
unfortunate effect that the method of argument I must employ is

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 361
rhetoric rather than logic. I've done it before, and so have many
others including, to name only recent examples, Carl Sagan in Pale

Blue Dot, E. 0. Wilson in Biophilia, Michael Shermer in The Soul
of Science and Paul Kurtz in Affirmations. In Unweaving the

Rainbow I tried to convey how lucky we are to be alive, given that
the vast majority of people who could potentially be thrown up by
the combinatorial lottery of DNA will in fact never be born. For
those of us lucky enough to be here, I pictured the relative brevity
of life by imagining a laser-thin spotlight creeping along a gigantic
ruler of time. Everything before or after the spotlight is shrouded in
the darkness of the dead past, or the darkness of the unknown
future. We are staggeringly lucky to find ourselves in the spotlight.

However brief our time in the sun, if we waste a second of it, or
complain that it is dull or barren or (like a child) boring, couldn't
this be seen as a callous insult to those unborn trillions who will
never even be offered life in the first place? As many atheists have
said better than me, the knowledge that we have only one life
should make it all the more precious. The atheist view is corre-
spondingly life-affirming and life-enhancing, while at the same time
never being tainted with self-delusion, wishful thinking, or the
whingeing self-pity of those who feel that life owes them something.

Emily Dickinson said,

That it will never come again

Is what makes life so sweet.

If the demise of God will leave a gap, different people will fill it
in different ways. My way includes a good dose of science, the
honest and systematic endeavour to find out the truth about the
real world. I see the human effort to understand the universe as a
model-building enterprise. Each of us builds, inside our head, a
model of the world in which we find ourselves. The minimal model
of the world is the model our ancestors needed in order to survive
in it. The simulation software was constructed and debugged by
natural selection, and it is most adept in the world familiar to our
ancestors on the African savannah: a three-dimensional world of
medium-sized material objects, moving at medium speeds relative
to one another. As an unexpected bonus, our brains turn out to be

362 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
powerful enough to accommodate a much richer world model than
the mediocre utilitarian one that our ancestors needed in order to
survive. Art and science are runaway manifestations of this bonus.

Let me paint one final picture, to convey the power of science to
open the mind and satisfy the psyche.

THE MOTHER OF ALL BURKAS

One of the unhappiest spectacles to be seen on our streets today is
the image of a woman swathed in shapeless black from head to toe,
peering out at the world through a tiny slit. The burka is not just
an instrument of oppression of women and claustral repression of
their liberty and their beauty; not just a token of egregious male
cruelty and tragically cowed female submission. I want to use the
narrow slit in the veil as a symbol of something else.

Our eyes see the world through a narrow slit in the electro-
magnetic spectrum. Visible light is a chink of brightness in the vast
dark spectrum, from radio waves at the long end to gamma rays at
the short end. Quite how narrow is hard to appreciate and a
challenge to convey. Imagine a gigantic black burka, with a vision
slit of approximately the standard width, say about one inch. If the
length of black cloth above the slit represents the short-wave end of
the invisible spectrum, and if the length of black cloth below the slit
represents the long-wave portion of the invisible spectrum, how
long would the burka have to be in order to accommodate a one-
inch slit to the same scale? It is hard to represent it sensibly without
invoking logarithmic scales, so huge are the lengths we are dealing
with. The last chapter of a book like this is no place to start toss-
ing logarithms around, but you can take it from me that it would
be the mother of all burkas. The one-inch window of visible light is
derisorily tiny compared with the miles and miles of black cloth
representing the invisible part of the spectrum, from radio waves at
the hem of the skirt to gamma rays at the top of the head. What
science does for us is widen the window. It opens up so wide that
the imprisoning black garment drops away almost completely,
exposing our senses to airy and exhilarating freedom.

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 363

Optical telescopes use glass lenses and mirrors to scan the
heavens, and what they see is stars that happen to be radiating in
the narrow band of wavelengths that we call visible light. But other
telescopes 'see' in the X-ray or radio wavelengths, and present to us
a cornucopia of alternative night skies. On a smaller scale, cameras
with appropriate filters can 'see' in the ultraviolet and take photo-
graphs of flowers that show an alien range of stripes and spots that
are visible to, and seemingly 'designed' for, insect eyes but which
our unaided eyes can't see at all. Insect eyes have a spectral window
of similar width to ours, but slightly shifted up the burka: they are
blind to red and they see further into the ultraviolet than we do -
into the 'ultraviolet garden'.*

The metaphor of the narrow window of light, broadening out
into a spectacularly wide spectrum, serves us in other areas of
science. We live near the centre of a cavernous museum of magni-
tudes, viewing the world with sense organs and nervous systems
that are equipped to perceive and understand only a small middle
range of sizes, moving at a middle range of speeds. We are at home
with objects ranging in size from a few kilometres (the view from a
mountaintop) to about a tenth of a millimetre (the point of a pin).

Outside this range even our imagination is handicapped, and we
need the help of instruments and of mathematics - which,
fortunately, we can learn to deploy. The range of sizes, distances or
speeds with which our imaginations are comfortable is a tiny band,
set in the midst of a gigantic range of the possible, from the scale of
quantum strangeness at the smaller end to the scale of Einsteinian
cosmology at the larger.

Our imaginations are forlornly under-equipped to cope with
distances outside the narrow middle range of the ancestrally
familiar. We try to visualize an electron as a tiny ball, in orbit
around a larger cluster of balls representing protons and neutrons.

That isn't what it is like at all. Electrons are not like little balls.

They are not like anything we recognize. It isn't clear that 'like'

even means anything when we try to fly too close to reality's further
horizons. Our imaginations are not yet tooled-up to penetrate the
neighbourhood of the quantum. Nothing at that scale behaves in

* 'The Ultraviolet Garden' was the title of one of my five Royal Institution

Christmas Lectures, originally televised by the BBC under the general title

'Growing Up in the Universe'. The whole series of five lectures will be made available
at www.richarddawkins.net, the website of the Richard Dawkins Foundation.

364 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
the way matter - as we are evolved to think - ought to behave. Nor
can we cope with the behaviour of objects that move at some
appreciable fraction of the speed of light. Common sense lets us
down, because common sense evolved in a world where nothing
moves very fast, and nothing is very small or very large.

At the end of a famous essay on 'Possible Worlds', the great
biologist J. B. S. Haldane wrote, 'Now, my own suspicion is that the
universe is not only queerer than we suppose, but queerer than we
can suppose . . . I suspect that there are more things in heaven and
earth than are dreamed of, or can be dreamed of, in any
philosophy.' By the way, I am intrigued by the suggestion that the
famous Hamlet speech invoked by Haldane is conventionally mis-
spoken. The normal stress is on 'your':

There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,

Than are dreamt of in your philosophy.

Indeed, the line is often plonkingly quoted with the implication that

Horatio stands for shallow rationalists and sceptics everywhere.

But some scholars place the stress on 'philosophy', with 'your'

almost vanishing: '. . . than are dreamt of inya philosophy.' The
difference doesn't really matter for present purposes, except that the
second interpretation already takes care of Haldane's 'any' philosophy.

The dedicatee of this book made a living from the strangeness of
science, pushing it to the point of comedy. The following is taken
from the same extempore speech in Cambridge in 1998 from which

I have already quoted: 'The fact that we live at the bottom of a deep
gravity well, on the surface of a gas-covered planet going around a
nuclear fireball ninety million miles away and think this to be
normal is obviously some indication of how skewed our perspective
tends to be.' Where other science-fiction writers played on the odd-
ness of science to arouse our sense of the mysterious, Douglas

Adams used it to make us laugh (those who have read The

Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy might think of the 'infinite
improbability drive', for instance). Laughter is arguably the best
response to some of the stranger paradoxes of modern physics. The
alternative, I sometimes think, is to cry.

Quantum mechanics, that rarefied pinnacle of twentieth-century

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 365
scientific achievement, makes brilliantly successful predictions
about the real world. Richard Feynman compared its precision to
predicting a distance as great as the width of North America to an
accuracy of one human hair's breadth. This predictive success seems
to mean that quantum theory has got to be true in some sense; as
true as anything we know, even including the most down-to-earth
common-sense facts. Yet the assumptions that quantum theory
needs to make, in order to deliver those predictions, are so
mysterious that even the great Feynman himself was moved to
remark (there are various versions of this quotation, of which the
following seems to me the neatest): 'If you think you understand
quantum theory . . . you don't understand quantum theory.'*

Quantum theory is so queer that physicists resort to one or
another paradoxical 'interpretation' of it. Resort is the right word.

David Deutsch, in The Fabric of Reality, embraces the 'many
worlds' interpretation of quantum theory, perhaps because the
worst that you can say of it is that it is preposterously wasteful. It
postulates a vast and rapidly growing number of universes, existing
in parallel and mutually undetectable except through the narrow
porthole of quantum-mechanical experiments. In some of these
universes I am already dead. In a small minority of them, you have
a green moustache. And so on.

The alternative 'Copenhagen interpretation' is equally pre-
posterous - not wasteful, just shatteringly paradoxical. Erwin

Schrödinger satirized it with his parable of the cat. Schrödinger's
cat is shut up in a box with a killing mechanism triggered by a
quantum-mechanical event. Before we open the lid of the box, we
don't know whether the cat is dead. Common sense tells us that,
nevertheless, the cat must be either alive or dead inside the box. The

Copenhagen interpretation contradicts common sense: all that
exists before we open the box is a probability. As soon as we open
the box, the wave function collapses and we are left with the single
event: the cat is dead, or the cat is alive. Until we opened the box,
it was neither dead nor alive.

The 'many worlds' interpretation of the same events is that in
some universes the cat is dead; in other universes the cat is alive.

Neither interpretation satisfies human common sense or intuition.

The more macho physicists don't care. What matters is that the

* A similar remark is attributed to Niels Bohr: 'Anyone who is not shocked by
quantum theory has not understood it.'

366 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
mathematics work, and the predictions are experimentally fulfilled.

Most of us are too wimpish to follow them. We seem to need some
sort of visualization of what is 'really' going on. I understand, by
the way, that Schrodinger originally proposed his cat thought-
experiment in order to expose what he saw as the absurdity of the

Copenhagen interpretation.

The biologist Lewis Wolpert believes that the queerness of
modern physics is just the tip of the iceberg. Science in general, as
opposed to technology, does violence to common sense.156 Here's a
favourite example: every time you drink a glass of water, the odds
are good that you will imbibe at least one molecule that passed
through the bladder of Oliver Cromwell. It's just elementary prob-
ability theory. The number of molecules per glassful is hugely
greater than the number of glassfuls in the world. So every time we
have a full glass, we are looking at a rather high proportion of the
molecules of water that exist in the world. There is, of course,
nothing special about Cromwell, or bladders. Haven't you just
breathed in a nitrogen atom that was once breathed out by the third
iguanodon to the left of the tall cycad tree? Aren't you glad to be
alive in a world where not only is such a conjecture possible but
you are privileged to understand why? And publicly explain it to
somebody else, not as your opinion or belief but as something that
they, when they have understood your reasoning, will feel com-
pelled to accept? Maybe this is an aspect of what Carl Sagan meant
when he explained his motive in writing The Demon-Haunted

World: Science as a Candle in the Dark: ''Not explaining science
seems to me perverse. When you're in love, you want to tell the
world. This book is a personal statement, reflecting my lifelong love
affair with science.'

The evolution of complex life, indeed its very existence in a
universe obeying physical laws, is wonderfully surprising - or
would be but for the fact that surprise is an emotion that can exist
only in a brain which is the product of that very surprising process.

There is an anthropic sense, then, in which our existence should not
be surprising. I'd like to think that I speak for my fellow humans in
insisting, nevertheless, that it is desperately surprising.

Think about it. On one planet, and possibly only one planet in
the entire universe, molecules that would normally make nothing

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 3 6 7
more complicated than a chunk of rock, gather themselves together
into chunks of rock-sized matter of such staggering complexity that
they are capable of running, jumping, swimming, flying, seeing,
hearing, capturing and eating other such animated chunks of com-
plexity; capable in some cases of thinking and feeling, and falling in
love with yet other chunks of complex matter. We now understand
essentially how the trick is done, but only since 1859. Before 1859
it would have seemed very very odd indeed. Now, thanks to

Darwin, it is merely very odd. Darwin seized the window of the
burka and wrenched it open, letting in a flood of understanding
whose dazzling novelty, and power to uplift the human spirit,
perhaps had no precedent - unless it was the Copernican realization
that the Earth was not the centre of the universe.

'Tell me,' the great twentieth-century philosopher Ludwig

Wittgenstein once asked a friend, 'why do people always say it was
natural for man to assume that the sun went round the Earth rather
than that the Earth was rotating?' His friend replied, 'Well,
obviously because it just looks as though the Sun is going round the

Earth.' Wittgenstein responded, 'Well, what would it have looked
like if it had looked as though the Earth was rotating?' I sometimes
quote this remark of Wittgenstein in lectures, expecting the
audience to laugh. Instead, they seem stunned into silence.

In the limited world in which our brains evolved, small objects
are more likely to move than large ones, which are seen as the back-
ground to movement. As the world rotates, objects that seem large
because they are near - mountains, trees and buildings, the ground
itself - all move in exact synchrony with each other and with the
observer, relative to heavenly bodies such as the sun and stars. Our
evolved brains project an illusion of movement onto them rather
than the mountains and trees in the foreground.

I now want to pursue the point mentioned above, that the way
we see the world, and the reason why we find some things
intuitively easy to grasp and others hard, is that our brains are
themselves evolved organs: on-board computers, evolved to help us
survive in a world -1 shall use the name Middle World - where the
objects that mattered to our survival were neither very large nor
very small; a world where things either stood still or moved slowly
compared with the speed of light; and where the very improbable

368 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
could safely be treated as impossible. Our mental burka window is
narrow because it didn't need to be any wider in order to assist our
ancestors to survive.

Science has taught us, against all evolved intuition, that appar-
ently solid things like crystals and rocks are really composed almost
entirely of empty space. The familiar illustration represents the
nucleus of an atom as a fly in the middle of a sports stadium. The
next atom is right outside the stadium. The hardest, solidest,
densest rock, then, is 'really' almost entirely empty space, broken
only by tiny particles so far apart that they shouldn't count. So why
do rocks look and feel solid and hard and impenetrable?

I won't try to imagine how Wittgenstein might have answered
that question. But, as an evolutionary biologist, I would answer it
like this. Our brains have evolved to help our bodies find their way
around the world on the scale at which those bodies operate. We
never evolved to navigate the world of atoms. If we had, our brains
probably would perceive rocks as full of empty space. Rocks feel
hard and impenetrable to our hands because our hands can't
penetrate them. The reason they can't penetrate them is un-
connected with the sizes and separations of the particles that
constitute matter. Instead, it has to do with the force fields that are
associated with those widely spaced particles in 'solid' matter. It is
useful for our brains to construct notions like solidity and im-
penetrability, because such notions help us to navigate our bodies
through a world in which objects - which we call solid - cannot
occupy the same space as each other.

A little comic relief at this point - from The Men who Stare at

Goats by Jon Ronson:

This is a true story. It is the summer of 1983. Major

General Albert Stubblebine III is sitting behind his desk in

Arlington, Virginia, and he is staring at his wall, upon
which hang his numerous military awards. They detail a
long and distinguished career. He is the United States

Army's chief of intelligence, with sixteen thousand sol-
diers under his command . . . He looks past his awards to
the wall itself. There is something he feels he must do even
though the thought of it frightens him. He thinks about

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 3 6 9
the choice he has to make. He can stay in his office or he
can go into the next office. That is his choice. And he has
made it. He is going into the next office . . . He stands up,
moves out from behind his desk, and begins to walk. I
mean, he thinks, what is the atom mostly made up of any-
way? Space! He quickens his pace. What am I mostly
made of? He thinks. Atoms! He is almost at a jog now.

What is the wall mostly made up of? He thinks. Atoms!

All I have to do is merge the spaces. . . . Then General

Stubblebine bangs his nose hard on the wall of his office.

Damn, he thinks. General Stubblebine is confounded by
his continual failure to walk through his wall.

General Stubblebine is appropriately described as an 'out of the
box thinker' on the website of the organization which, in retire-
ment, he now runs with his wife. It is called HealthFreedomUSA,
and it is dedicated to 'supplements (vitamins, minerals, amino
acids, etc.), herbs, homeopathic remedies, nutritional medicine and
clean food (untainted by pesticides, herbicides, antibiotics), without
corporations (through the use of government coercion) dictating to
you what dosages and treatments you are allowed to use'. There is
no mention of precious bodily fluids.*

Having evolved in Middle World, we find it intuitively easy to
grasp ideas like: 'When a major general moves, at the sort of
medium velocity at which major generals and other Middle World
objects do move, and hits another solid Middle World object like a
wall, his progress is painfully arrested.' Our brains are not
equipped to imagine what it would be like to be a neutrino passing
through a wall, in the vast interstices of which that wall 'really'

consists. Nor can our understanding cope with what happens when
things move at close to the speed of light.

Unaided human intuition, evolved and schooled in Middle World,
even finds it hard to believe Galileo when he tells us that a cannon
ball and a feather, given no air friction, would hit the ground at the
same instant when dropped from a leaning tower. That is because,
in Middle World, air friction is always there. If we had evolved in
a vacuum, we would expect a feather and a cannonball to hit the
ground simultaneously. We are evolved denizens of Middle World,

* www.healthfreedomusa.org/aboutus/president.shtml. For what looks like a
very characterful portrait of General Stubblebine, see www.mindcontrol
forums.com/images/Mind94.jpg.

370 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
and that limits what we are capable of imagining. The narrow
window of our burka permits us, unless we are especially gifted or
peculiarly well educated, to see only Middle World.

There is a sense in which we animals have to survive not just in

Middle World but in the micro-world of atoms and electrons too.

The very nerve impulses with which we do our thinking and our
imagining depend upon activities in Micro World. But no action
that our wild ancestors ever had to perform, no decision that they
ever had to take, would have been assisted by an understanding of

Micro World. If we were bacteria, constantly buffeted by thermal
movements of molecules, it would be different. But we Middle

Worlders are too cumbersomely massive to notice Brownian
motion. Similarly, our lives are dominated by gravity but are almost
oblivious to the delicate force of surface tension. A small insect
would reverse that priority and would find surface tension anything
but delicate.

Steve Grand, in Creation: Life and How to Make It, is almost
scathing about our preoccupation with matter itself. We have this
tendency to think that only solid, material 'things' are 'really' things
at all. 'Waves' of electromagnetic fluctuation in a vacuum seem

'unreal'. Victorians thought that waves had to be waves 'in' some
material medium. No such medium was known, so they invented
one and named it the luminiferous ether. But we find 'real' matter
comfortable to our understanding only because our ancestors evolved
to survive in Middle World, where matter is a useful construct.

On the other hand, even we Middle Worlders can see that a
whirlpool is a 'thing' with something like the reality of a rock, even
though the matter in the whirlpool is constantly changing. In a
desert plain in Tanzania, in the shadow of Ol Donyo Lengai, sacred
volcano of the Masai, there is a large dune made of ash from an
eruption in 1969. It is carved into shape by the wind. But the
beautiful thing is that it moves bodily. It is what is technically
known as a barchan (pronounced bahkahn). The entire dune walks
across the desert in a westerly direction at a speed of about 17
metres per year. It retains its crescent shape and creeps along in the
direction of the horns. The wind blows sand up the shallower slope.

Then, as each sand grain hits the top of the ridge, it cascades down
the steeper slope on the inside of the crescent.

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 371

Actually, even a barchan is more of a 'thing' than a wave. A
wave seems to move horizontally across the open sea, but the
molecules of water move vertically. Similarly, sound waves may
travel from speaker to listener, but molecules of air don't: that
would be a wind, not a sound. Steve Grand points out that you and

I are more like waves than permanent 'things'. He invites his reader
to think . . .

. . . of an experience from your childhood. Something you
remember clearly, something you can see, feel, maybe even
smell, as if you were really there. After all, you really were
there at the time, weren't you? How else would you
remember it? But here is the bombshell: you weren't there.

Not a single atom that is in your body today was there
when that event took place . . . Matter flows from place
to place and momentarily comes together to be you.

Whatever you are, therefore, you are not the stuff of
which you are made. If that doesn't make the hair stand
up on the back of your neck, read it again until it does,
because it is important.

'Really' isn't a word we should use with simple confidence. If a
neutrino had a brain which had evolved in neutrino-sized ancestors,
it would say that rocks 'really' do consist mostly of empty space.

We have brains that evolved in medium-sized ancestors, who
couldn't walk through rocks, so our 'really' is a 'really' in which
rocks are solid. 'Really', for an animal, is whatever its brain needs
it to be, in order to assist its survival. And because different species
live in such different worlds, there will be a troubling variety of

'reallys'.

What we see of the real world is not the unvarnished real world
but a model of the real world, regulated and adjusted by sense data

- a model that is constructed so that it is useful for dealing with the
real world. The nature of that model depends on the kind of animal
we are. A flying animal needs a different kind of world model from
a walking, a climbing or a swimming animal. Predators need a
different kind of model from prey, even though their worlds
necessarily overlap. A monkey's brain must have software capable

372 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
of simulating a three-dimensional maze of branches and trunks. A
water boatman's brain doesn't need 3D software, since it lives on
the surface of the pond in an Edwin Abbott Flatland. A mole's
software for constructing models of the world will be customized
for underground use. A naked mole rat probably has world-
representing software similar to a mole's. But a squirrel, although it
is a rodent like the mole rat, probably has world-rendering software
much more like a monkey's.

I've speculated, in The Blind Watchmaker and elsewhere, that
bats may 'see' colour with their ears. The world-model that a bat
needs, in order to navigate through three dimensions catching
insects, must surely be similar to the model that a swallow needs in
order to perform much the same task. The fact that the bat uses
echoes to update the variables in its model, while the swallow uses
light, is incidental. Bats, I suggest, use perceived hues such as 'red'

and 'blue' as internal labels for some useful aspect of echoes,
perhaps the acoustic texture of surfaces; just as swallows use the
same perceived hues to label long and short wavelengths of light.

The point is that the nature of the model is governed by how it is
to be used rather than by the sensory modality involved. The lesson
of the bats is this. The general form of the mind model - as opposed
to the variables that are constantly being inputted by sensory nerves

- is an adaptation to the animal's way of life, no less than its wings,
legs and tail are.

J. B. S. Haldane, in the article on 'possible worlds' that I quoted
above, had something relevant to say about animals whose world is
dominated by smell. He noted that dogs can distinguish two very
similar volatile fatty acids - caprylic acid and caproic acid - each
diluted to one part in a million. The only difference is that caprylic
acid's main molecular chain is two carbon atoms longer than the
main chain of caproic acid. A dog, Haldane guesses, would prob-
ably be able to place the acids 'in the order of their molecular
weights by their smells, just as a man could place a number of piano
wires in the order of their lengths by means of their notes'.

There is another fatty acid, capric acid, which is just like the
other two except that it has yet two more carbon atoms in its main
chain. A dog that had never met capric acid would perhaps have no
more trouble imagining its smell than we would have trouble

A M U C H N E E D E D G A P ? 373
imagining a trumpet playing one note higher than we have heard a
trumpet play before. It seems to me entirely reasonable to guess
that a dog, or a rhinoceros, might treat mixtures of smells as
harmonious chords. Perhaps there are discords. Probably not
melodies, for melodies are built up of notes that start or stop
abruptly with accurate timing, unlike smells. Or perhaps dogs and
rhinos smell in colour. The argument would be the same as for the
bats.

Once again, the perceptions that we call colours are tools used
by our brains to label important distinctions in the outside world.

Perceived hues - what philosophers call qualia - have no intrinsic
connection with lights of particular wavelengths. They are internal
labels that are available to the brain, when it constructs its model
of external reality, to make distinctions that are especially salient to
the animal concerned. In our case, or that of a bird, that means
light of different wavelengths. In a bat's case, I have speculated, it
might be surfaces of different echoic properties or textures, perhaps
red for shiny, blue for velvety, green for abrasive. And in a dog's or
a rhino's case, why should it not be smells? The power to imagine
the alien world of a bat or a rhino, a pond skater or a mole, a
bacterium or a bark beetle, is one of the privileges science grants us
when it tugs at the black cloth of our burka and shows us the wider
range of what is out there for our delight.

The metaphor of Middle World - of the intermediate range of
phenomena that the narrow slit in our burka permits us to see -
applies to yet other scales or 'spectrums'. We can construct a scale
of improbabilities, with a similarly narrow window through which
our intuition and imagination are capable of going. At one extreme
of the spectrum of improbabilities are those would-be events that
we call impossible. Miracles are events that are extremely im-
probable. A statue of a madonna could wave its hand at us. The
atoms that make up its crystalline structure are all vibrating back
and forth. Because there are so many of them, and because there is
no agreed preference in their direction of motion, the hand, as we
see it in Middle World, stays rock steady. But the jiggling atoms in
the hand could all just happen to move in the same direction at the
same time. And again. And again . . . In this case the hand would
move, and we'd see it waving at us. It could happen, but the odds

3 7 4 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N
against are so great that, if you had set out writing the number at
the origin of the universe, you still would not have written enough
zeroes to this day. The power to calculate such odds - the power to
quantify the near-impossible rather than just throw up our hands in
despair - is another example of the liberating benefactions of
science to the human spirit.

Evolution in Middle World has ill equipped us to handle very
improbable events. But in the vastness of astronomical space, or
geological time, events that seem impossible in Middle World turn
out to be inevitable. Science flings open the narrow window
through which we are accustomed to viewing the spectrum of
possibilities. We are liberated by calculation and reason to visit
regions of possibility that had once seemed out of bounds or in-
habited by dragons. We have already made use of this widening of
the window in Chapter 4, where we considered the improbability
of the origin of life and how even a near-impossible chemical event
must come to pass given enough planet years to play with; and
where we considered the spectrum of possible universes, each with
its own set of laws and constants, and the anthropic necessity of
finding ourselves in one of the minority of friendly places.

How should we interpret Haldane's 'queerer than we can
suppose'? Queerer than can, in principle, be supposed? Or just
queerer than we can suppose, given the limitation of our brains'

evolutionary apprenticeship in Middle World? Could we, by train-
ing and practice, emancipate ourselves from Middle World, tear off
our black burka, and achieve some sort of intuitive - as well as just
mathematical - understanding of the very small, the very large, and
the very fast? I genuinely don't know the answer, but I am thrilled
to be alive at a time when humanity is pushing against the limits of
understanding. Even better, we may eventually discover that there
are no limits.

Appendix

A partial list of friendly
addresses, for individuals needing
support in escaping from religion

I intend to keep an updated version of this list on the website of the Richard

Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science: www.richarddawkins.net. I
apologize for limiting the list below largely to the English-speaking world.

USA

American Atheists

PO Box 5733, Parsippany, NJ 07054-6733

Voicemail: 1-908-276-7300

Fax: 1-908-276-7402

Email: info@atheists.org
www.atheists.org

American Humanist Association

1777 T Street, NW, Washington, DC 20009-7125

Telephone: (202) 238-9088

Toll-free: 1-800-837-3792

Fax: (202) 238-9003
www.americanhumanist.org

Atheist Alliance International

PO Box 26867, Los Angeles, CA 90026

Toll-free: 1-866-HERETIC

Email: info@atheistalliance.org
www.atheistalliance.org

The Brights

PO Box 163418, Sacramento, CA 95816 USA

Email: the-brights@the-brights.net
www.the-brights.net

Center For Inquiry Transnational

Council for Secular Humanism

Campus Freethought Alliance

Center for Inquiry - On Campus

376 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

African Americans for Humanism

3965 Rensch Road, Amherst, NY 14228

Telephone: (716) 636-4869

Fax:(716)636-1733

Email: info@secularhumanism.org
www.centerforinquiry.net
www.secularhumanism.org
www.campusfreethought.org
www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=aah&page=index

Freedom From Religion Foundation

PO Box 750, Madison, WI 53701

Telephone: (608) 256-5800

Email: info@ffrf.org
www.ffrf.org

Freethought Society of Greater Philadelphia

PO Box 242, Pocopson, PA 19366-0242

Telephone: (610) 793-2737

Fax: (610) 793-2569

Email: fsgp@freethought.org
www.fsgp.org/

Institute for Humanist Studies

48 Howard St, Albany, NY 12207

Telephone: (518) 432-7820

Fax: (518) 432-7821
www.humaniststudies.org

International Humanist and Ethical Union - USA

Appignani Bioethics Center

PO Box 4104, Grand Central Station, New York, NY 10162

Telephone: (212) 687-3324

Fax: (212) 661-4188

Internet Infidels

PO Box 142, Colorado Springs, CO 80901-0142

Fax: (877) 501-5113
www.infidels.org

James Randi Educational Foundation

201 S.E. 12th St (E. Davie Blvd), Fort Lauderdale, FL 33316-1815

Telephone: (954)467-1112

Fax: (954) 467-1660

A P P E N D I X 377

Email: jref@randi.org
www.randi.org

Secular Coalition for America

PO Box 53330, Washington, DC 20009-9997

Telephone: (202) 299-1091
www.secular.org

Secular Student Alliance

PO Box 3246, Columbus, OH 43210

Toll-free Voicemail / Fax: 1-877-842-9474

Email: ssa@secularstudents.org
www.secularstudents.org

The Skeptics Society

PO Box 338, Altadena, CA 91001

Telephone: (626) 794-3119

Fax: (626) 794-1301

Email: editorial@skeptic.com
www.skeptic.com

Society for Humanistic Judaism

28611 W. 12 Mile Rd, Farmington Hills, MI 48334

Telephone: (248) 478-7610

Fax: (248)478-3159

Email: info@shj.org
www.shj.org

Britain

British Humanist Association

1 Gower Street, London WC1E 6HD

Telephone: 020 7079 3580

Fax: 020 7079 3588

Email: info@humanism.org.uk
www.humanism.org.uk

International Humanist and Ethical Union - UK

1 Gower Street, London WC1E 6HD

Telephone: 020 7631 3170

Fax: 020 7631 3171
www.iheu.org/

378 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

National Secular Society

25 Red Lion Square, London WC1R 4RL

Tel: 020 7404 3126

Fax: 0870 762 8971
www.secularisrn.org.uk/

New Humanist

1 Gower Street, London WC1E 6HD

Telephone: 020 7436 1151

Fax: 020 7079 3588

Email: info@newhumanist.org.uk
www.newhumanist.org.uk

Rationalist Press Association

1 Gower Street, London WC1E 6HD

Telephone: 020 7436 1151

Fax: 020 7079 3588

Email: info@rationalist.org.uk
www.rationalist.org.uk/

South Place Ethical Society (UK)

Conway Hall, Red Lion Square, London WC1R 4RL

Telephone: 020 7242 8037/4

Fax: 020 7242 8036

Email: library@ethicalsoc.org.uk
www.ethicalsoc.org.uk

Canada

Humanist Association of Canada

PO Box 8752, Station T, Ottawa, Ontario, K1G 3J1

Telephone: 877-HUMANS-l

Fax: (613) 739-4801

Email: HAC@Humanists.ca
http://hac.humanists.net/

Australia

Australian Skeptics

PO Box 268, Roseville, NSW 2069

Telephone: 02 9417 2071

Email: skeptics@bdsn.com.au
www.skeptics.com.au

A P P E N D I X 379

Council of Australian Humanist Societies

GPO Box 1555, Melbourne, Victoria 3001.

Telephone: 613 5974 4096

Email: AMcPhate@bigpond.net.au
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~humanist/resources/cahs.html

New Zealand

New Zealand Skeptics

NZCSICOP Inc.

PO Box 29-492, Christchurch

Email: skeptics@spis.co.nz
http://skeptics.org.nz

Humanist Society of New Zealand

PO Box 3372, Wellington

Email: jeffhunt90@yahoo.co.nz
www.humanist.org.nz/

India

Rationalist International

PO Box 9110, New Delhi 110091

Telephone: + 91-11-556 990 12

Email: info@rationalistinternational.net
www.rationalistinternational.net/

Islamic

Apostates of Islam
www.apostatesofislam.com/index.htm

Dr Homa Darabi Foundation

(To promote the rights of women and children under Islam)

PO Box 11049, Truckee, CA 96162, USA

Telephone (530) 582 4197

Fax (530) 582 0156

Email: homa@homa.org
www.homa.org/

FaithFreedom.org
www.faithfreedom.org/index.htm

Institute for the Secularization of Islamic Society

Email: info@SecularIslam.org
www.secularislam.org/Default.htm

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Notes

Preface

1 Wendy Kaminer, 'The last taboo: why America needs atheism',

New Republic, 14 Oct. 1996;
http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/kaminer.htm.

2 Dr Zoe Hawkins, Dr Beata Adams and Dr Paul St John Smith,
personal communication.

Chapter 1: A deeply religious non-believer

Deserved respect

3 The television documentary of which the interview was a part was
accompanied by a book (Winston 2005).

4 Dennett (2006).

Undeserved respect

5 The full speech is transcribed in Adams (2003) as 'Is there an
artificial God?'

6 Perica (2002). See also http://www.historycooperative.org/
journals/ahr/108.5/br_151.html.

7 'Dolly and the cloth heads', in Dawkins (2003).

8 http://scotus.ap.org/scotus/04-1084p.zo.pdf.

9 R. Dawkins, 'The irrationality of faith', New Statesman (London),

31 March 1989.

10 Columbus Dispatch, 19 Aug. 2005.

11 Los Angeles Times, 10 April 2006.

12 http://gatewaypundit.blogspot.com/2006/02/islamic-society-of-
denmark-used-fake.html.

13 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4686536.stm;
http://www.neandernews.com/?cat=6.

14 Independent, 5 Feb. 2006.

15 Andrew Mueller, 'An argument with Sir Iqbal', Independent on

Sunday, 2 April 2006, Sunday Review section, 12-16.

N O T E S T O P P . 1 - 5 3 389

Chapter 2: The God Hypothesis

16 Mitford and Waugh (2001).

Polytheism

17 http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06608b.htm.

18 http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/indexsnt.htm?NF=l.

Secularism, the Founding Fathers and the religion of America

19 Congressional Record, 16 Sept. 1981.

20 http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/buckner_tripoli.html.

21 Giles Fraser, 'Resurgent religion has done away with the country
vicar', Guardian, 13 April 2006.

22 Robert I. Sherman, in Free Inquiry 8: 4, Fall 1988, 16.

23 N. Angier, 'Confessions of a lonely atheist', New York Times

Magazine, 14 Jan. 2001:

http://www.geocities.com/mindstuff/Angier.html.

24 http://www.fsgp.org/adsn.html.

25 An especially bizarre case of a man being murdered simply
because he was an atheist is recounted in the newsletter of the

Freethought Society of Greater Philadelphia for March/April

2006. Go to http://www.fsgp.org/newsletters/newsletter_

2006_0304.pdf and scroll down to 'The murder of Larry Hooper'.

26 http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mag/2001/ll/18/
stories/2001111800070400.htm.

The poverty of agnosticism

27 Quentin de la Bedoyere, Catholic Herald, 3 Feb. 2006.

28 Carl Sagan, 'The burden of skepticism', Skeptical Inquirer 12, Fall

1987.

29 I discussed this case in Dawkins (1998).

30 T. H. Huxley, 'Agnosticism' (1889), repr. in Huxley (1931). The
complete text of 'Agnosticism' is also available at http://
www. infidels. org/library/historical/thomas_huxley/
huxley_wace/part_02.html.

31 Russell, 'Is there a God?' (1952), repr. in Russell (1997b).

32 Andrew Mueller, 'An argument with Sir Iqbal', Independent on

Sunday, 2 April 2006, Sunday Review section, 12-16.

33 New York Times, 29 Aug. 2005. See also Henderson (2006).

390 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

34 Henderson (2006).

35 http://www.lulu.com/content/267888.

The Great Prayer Experiment

36 H. Benson et al., 'Study of the therapeutic effects of intercessory
prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients', American Heart Journal

151: 4, 2006, 934-42.

37 Richard Swinburne, in Science and Theology News, 7 April 2006,
http://www.stnews.org/Commentary-2772.htm.

38 New York Times, 11 April 2006.

The Neville Chamberlain school of evolutionists

39 In court cases, and books such as Ruse (1982). His article in

Playboy appeared in the April 2006 issue.

40 Jerry Coyne's reply to Ruse appeared in the August 2006 issue of

Playboy.

41 Madeleine Bunting, Guardian, 27 March 2006.

42 Dan Dennett's reply appeared in the Guardian, 4 April 2006.

43 http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/03/the_
dawkinsdennett_boogeyman.php; http://scienceblogs.com/
pharyngula/2006/02/our_double_standard.php; http://scienceblogs.

com/pharyngula/2006/02/the_rusedennett_feud.php.

Little green men

44 http://vo.obspm.fr/exoplanetes/encyclo/encycl.html.

45 Dennett (1995).

Chapter 3: Arguments for God's existence

The ontological argument and other a priori arguments

46 http://www.iep.utm.edU/o/ont-arg.htm. Gasking's 'proof is at
http://www.uq.edu.au/~pdwgrey/pubs/gasking.html.

The argument from personal 'experience'

47 The whole subject of illusions is discussed by Richard Gregory in
a series of books including Gregory (1997).

48 My own attempt at spelling out the explanation is on pp. 268-9
of Dawkins (1998).

49 http://www.sofc.org/Spirituality/s-of-fatima.htm.

N O T E S T O P P . 5 3 - 1 3 1 391

The argument from scripture

50 Tom Flynn, 'Matthew vs. Luke', Free Inquiry 25: 1, 2004, 34-45;

Robert Gillooly, 'Shedding light on the light of the world', Free

Inquiry 25: 1, 2004, 27-30.

51 Erhman (2006). See also Ehrman (2003a, b).

The argument from admired religious scientists

52 Beit-Hallahmi and Argyle (1997).

53 E. J. Larson and L. Witham, 'Leading scientists still reject God',

Nature 394, 1998, 313.

54 http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9610/reeves.html gives a
particularly interesting analysis of historical trends in American
religious opinion by Thomas C. Reeves, Professor of History at
the University of Wisconsin, based on Reeves (1996).

55 http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs/3506.asp.

56 R. Elisabeth Cornwell and Michael Stirrat, manuscript in
preparation, 2006.

57 P. Bell, 'Would you believe it?', Mensa Magazine, Feb. 2002,

12-13.

Chapter 4: Why there almost certainly is no God

The Ultimate Boeing 747

58 An exhaustive review of the provenance, usages and quotations of
this analogy is given, from a creationist point of view, by Gert

Korthof, at http://home.wxs.nl/~gkorthof/kortho46a.htm.

Natural selection as a consciousness-raiser

59 Adams (2002), p. 99. My 'Lament for Douglas', written the day
after his death, is reprinted as the Epilogue to The Salmon of

Doubt, and also in A Devil's Chaplain, which also has my
eulogy at his memorial meeting in the Church of St Martin-in-the-

Fields.

60 Interview in Der Spiegel, 26 Dec. 2005.

61 Susskind (2006: 17).

The worship of gaps

62 Behe (1996).

63 http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/design2/article.html.

392 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

64 This account of the Dover trial, including the quotations, is from

A. Bottaro, M. A. Inlay and N. J. Matzke, 'Immunology in the
spotlight at the Dover "Intelligent Design" trial', Nature

Immunology 7, 2006, 433-5.

65 J. Coyne, 'God in the details: the biochemical challenge to
evolution', Nature 383, 1996, 227-8. The article by Coyne and
me, 'One side can be wrong', was published in the Guardian,

1 Sept. 2005: http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/
feature/story/0,13026,1559743,00.html.

The quotation from the 'eloquent blogger' is at http://
www.religionisbullshit.net/blog/2005_09_01_archive.php.

66 Dawkins (1995).

The antbropic principle: planetary version

61 Carter admitted later that a better name for the overall principle
would be 'cognizability principle' rather than the already
entrenched term 'anthropic principle': B. Carter, 'The anthropic
principle and its implications for biological evolution',

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A,

310, 1983, 347-63. For a book-length discussion of the anthropic
principle, see Barrow and Tipler (1988).

68 Comins (1993).

69 I spelled this argument out more fully in The Blind Watchmaker

(Dawkins 1986).

The anthropic principle: cosmological version

70 Murray Gell-Mann, quoted by John Brockman on the 'Edge'

website, http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/smolin.html.

71 Ward (1996: 99); Polkinghorne (1994: 55).

An interlude at Cambridge

72 J. Horgan, 'The Templeton Foundation: a skeptic's take',

Chronicle of Higher Education, 7 April 2006. See also
http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/horgan06/horgan06_index.html.

73 P. B. Medawar, review of The Phenomenon of Man, repr. in

Medawar (1982: 242).

74 Dennett (1995: 155).

N O T E S T O P P . 1 3 3 - 2 3 2 393

Chapter 5: The roots of religion

The Darwinian imperative

75 Quoted in Dawkins (1982: 30).

76 K. Sterelny, 'The perverse primate', in Grafen and Ridley (2006:

213-23).

Group selection

77 N. A. Chagnon, 'Terminological kinship, genealogical relatedness
and village fissioning among the Yanomamo Indians', in

Alexander and Tinkle (1981: ch. 28).

78 C. Darwin, The Descent of Man (New York: Appleton, 1871),
vol. 1, 156.

Religion as a by-product of something else

79 Quoted in Blaker (2003: 7).

Psychologically primed for religion

80 See e.g. Buss (2005).

81 Deborah Keleman, 'Are children "intuitive theists"?',

Psychological Science 15: 5, 2004, 295-301.

82 Dennett (1987).

83 Guardian, 31 Jan. 2006.

84 Smythies (2006).

85 http://jmm.aaa.net.au/articles/14223.htm.

Chapter 6: The roots of morality: why are we good?

86 The movie itself, which is very good, can be obtained at
http://www.thegodmovie.com/index.php.

A case study in the roots of morality

87 M. Hauser and P. Singer, 'Morality without religion', Free Inquiry

26: 1, 2006, 18-19.

If there is no God, why be good?

88 Dostoevsky (1994: bk 2, ch. 6, p. 87).

89 Hinde (2002). See also Singer (1994), Grayling (2003), Glover

(2006).

394 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Chapter 7: The 'Good' Book and the changing moral Zeitgeist

90 Lane Fox (1992); Berlinerblau (2005).

91 Holloway (1999, 2005). Richard Holloway's 'recovering

Christian' line is in a book review in the Guardian, 15 Feb. 2003:

http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/scienceandnature/

0,6121,894941,00.html. The Scottish journalist Muriel Gray wrote
a beautiful account of my Edinburgh dialogue with Bishop Holloway
in the (Glasgow) Herald: http://www.sundayherald.com/44517.

The Old Testament

92 For a frightening collection of sermons by American clergymen,
blaming hurricane Katrina on human 'sin', see
http://universist.org/neworleans.htm.

93 Pat Robertson, reported by the BBC at
http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/americas/4427144.stm.

Is the New Testament any better?

94 R. Dawkins, 'Atheists for Jesus', Free Inquiry 25: 1, 2005, 9-10.

95 Julia Sweeney is also right on target when she briefly mentions

Buddhism. Just as Christianity is sometimes thought to be a nicer,
gentler religion than Islam, Buddhism is often cracked up to be
the nicest of all. But the doctrine of demotion on the reincarnation
ladder because of sins in a past life is pretty unpleasant. Julia

Sweeney: 'I went to Thailand and happened to visit a woman who
was taking care of a terribly deformed boy. I said to his caretaker,

"It's so good of you to be taking care of this poor boy." She said,

"Don't say 'poor boy,' he must have done something terrible in a
past life to be born this way." '

96 For a thoughtful analysis of techniques used by cults, see Barker

(1984). More journalistic accounts of modern cults are given by

Lane (1996) and Kilduff and Javers (1978).

97 Paul Vallely and Andrew Buncombe, 'History of Christianity:

Gospel according to Judas', Independent, 7 April 2006.

98 Vermes (2000).

Love thy neighbour

99 Hartung's paper was originally published in Skeptic 3: 4, 1995,
but is now most readily available at http://www.lrainc.com/

N O T E S T O P P . 2 3 7 - 2 8 5 395
swtaboo/taboos/ltnOl .html.

100 Smith (1995).

101 Guardian, 12 March 2002: http://books.guardian.co.uk/
departments/politicsphilosophyandsociety/story/0,,664342,00.html.

102 N. D. Glenn, 'Interreligious marriage in the United States: patterns
and recent trends', Journal of Marriage and the Family 44: 3,

1982, 555-66.

The moral Zeitgeist

103 http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/newlOc.html.

104 Huxley (1871).

105 http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/american-authors/

19th-century/abraham-lincoln/the-writings-of-abraharn-
lincoln-04/.

What about Hitler and Stalin? Weren't they atheists?

106 Bullock (1991).

107 Bullock (2005).

108 http://www.ffrf.org/fttoday/1997/march97/holocaust.html. This
article by Richard E. Smith, originally published in Freethought

Today, March 1997, has a large number of relevant quotations
from Hitler and other Nazis, giving their sources. Unless
otherwise stated, my quotations are from Smith's article.

109 http://homepages.paradise.net.nz/mischedj/ca_hitler.htrnl.

110 Bullock (2005: 96).

111 Adolf Hitler, speech of 12 April 1922. In Baynes (1942: 19-20).

112 Bullock (2005: 43).

113 This quotation, and the following one, are from Anne Nicol

Gaylor's article on Hitler's religion,
http://www. ffrf. org/fttoday/back/hitler. html.

114 http://www.contra-mundum.org/schirrmacher/NS_Religion.pdf.

Chapter 8: What's wrong with religion? Why be so hostile?

Fundamentalism and the subversion of science

115 From 'What is true?', ch. 1.2 of Dawkins (2003).

116 Both my quotations from Wise come from his contribution to the

1999 book In Six Days, an anthology of essays by young-Earth
creationists (Ashton 1999).

396 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

The dark side of absolutism

117 Warraq (1995: 175).

118 John William Gott's imprisonment for calling Jesus a clown is
mentioned in The Indypedia, published by the Independent, 29

April 2006. The attempted prosecution of the BBC for blasphemy
is in BBC news, 10 Jan. 2005: http://news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/
entertainment/tv_and_radio/4161109.stm.

119 http://adultthought.ucsd.edu/Culture_War/The_American_

Taliban.html.

Faith and homosexuality

120 Hodges (1983).

121 This and the remaining quotations in this section are from the

American Taliban site already listed;
http://adultthought.ucsd.edu/Culture_War/The_American_Taliban.

html.

122 http://adultthought.ucsd.edu/Culture_War/The_American_

Taliban.html.

123 From Pastor Phelps's Westboro Baptist Church official website,
godhatesfags.com:

http://www.godhatesfags.com/fliers/jan2006/20060131_
coretta-scott-king-funeral.pdf.

Faith and the sanctity of human life

124 See Mooney (2005). Also Silver (2006), which arrived when this
book was in final proof, too late to be discussed as fully as I
would have liked.

125 For an interesting analysis of what makes Texas different in this
respect, see http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/
execution/readings/texas.html.

126 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karla_Faye_Tucker.

127 These Randall Terry quotes are from the same American Taliban
site as before:

http://adultthought.ucsd.edu/Culture_War/The_American_Taliban.

html.

128 Reported on Fox news:

http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,96286,00.html.

129 M. Stamp Dawkins (1980).

N O T E S T O P P . 2 8 7 - 3 3 2 397

The Great Beethoven Fallacy

130 http://www.warroom.com/ethical.htm.

131 Medawar and Medawar (1977).

How 'moderation' in faith fosters fanaticism

132 Johann Hari's article, originally published in the Independent, 15

July 2005, can be found at
http://www.johannhari.com/archive/article.php?id=640.

133 Village Voice, 18 May 2004:

http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0420,perlstein,53582,l.html.

134 Harris (2004: 29).

135 Nasra Hassan, 'An arsenal of believers', New Yorker, 19 Nov.

2001. See also http://www.bintjbeil.com/articles/en/011119_
hassan.html.

Chapter 9: Childhood, abuse and the escape from religion

Physical and mental abuse

136 Reported by BBC news:

http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/wales/901723.stm.

137 Loftus and Ketcham (1994).

138 See John Waters in the Irish Times:

http://oneinfour.org/news/news2003/roots/.

139 Associated Press, 10 June 2005: http://www.rickross.com/
reference/clergy/clergy426.html.

140 http://www.avl611.org/hell.html.

In defence of children

141 N. Humphrey, 'What shall we tell the children?', in Williams

(1998); repr. in Humphrey (2002).

142 http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/
yoder.html.

An educational scandal

143 Guardian, 15 Jan. 2005:

http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,,1389500,00.html.

144 Times Educational Supplement, 15 July 2005.

145 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/
opinion/2002/03/18/dol 801.xml

398 T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

146 Guardian, 15 Jan. 2005: http://www.guardian.co.uk/
weekend/story/0,,1389500,00.html.

147 The text of our letter, drafted by the Bishop of Oxford, was as
follows:

Dear Prime Minister,

We write as a group of scientists and Bishops to
express our concern about the teaching of science
in the Emmanuel City Technology College in

Gateshead. Evolution is a scientific theory of
great explanatory power, able to account for a
wide range of phenomena in a number of
disciplines. It can be refined, confirmed and even
radically altered by attention to evidence. It is
not, as spokesmen for the college maintain, a

'faith position' in the same category as the
biblical account of creation which has a different
function and purpose.

The issue goes wider than what is currently
being taught in one college. There is a growing
anxiety about what will be taught and how it
will be taught in the new generation of proposed
faith schools. We believe that the curricula in
such schools, as well as that of Emmanuel City

Technical College, need to be strictly monitored
in order that the respective disciplines of science
and religious studies are properly respected.

Yours sincerely

148 British Humanist Association News, March-April 2006.

149 Observer, 22 July 2004: http://observer.guardian.co.uk/
magazine/story/0,11913,1258506,00.html.

Consciousness-raising again

150 The Oxford Dictionary takes 'gay' back to American prison slang
in 1935. In 1955 Peter Wildeblood, in his famous book Against
the Law, found it necessary to define 'gay' as 'an American
euphemism for homosexual'.

151 http://uepengland.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=

184&mode=linear.

N O T E S T O P P . 3 3 4 - 3 6 6 399

Religious education as a part of literary culture

152 Shaheen has written three books, anthologizing biblical references
in the comedies, tragedies and histories separately. The summary
count of 1,300 is mentioned in
http://www.shakespearefellowship.org/virtualclassroom/

StritmatterShaheenRev.htm.

153 http://www.bibleliteracy.org/Secure/Documents/

BibleLiteracyReport2005 .pdf.

Chapter 10: A much needed gap?

Consolation

154 From memory, I attribute this argument to the Oxford
philosopher Derek Parfitt. I have not researched its origins
thoroughly because I am using it only as a passing example of
philosophical consolation.

155 Reported by BBC News:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/special_report/1999/06/99/cardinal_
hume_funeral/376263.stm.

The mother of all burkas

156 Wolpert (1992).

Index

A for Andromeda (Hoyle), 72

92-7; ontological, 80-5, 107;

Berlinerblau, Jacques, 95

Aaron, 244-5

Pascal's wager, 103-5

Bethea, Charles, 63

Abbott, Edwin, 372

Arian heresy, 33

Bethlehem, 93, 94

Abimelech, King of Gerar, 242

Army of God, 295

Betjeman, John, lln, 41, 261
abortion, 60, 291-8
art, 200n

Bhagavad Gita, 344

Abraham, 36, 241-3, 251, 265
astronomers, 55-7

Bible, 57, 237, 327, 340-3; see
absolutism, 232, 286-8, 293-4
atheism: attitudes to death,
also New Testament, Old
abuse: mental, 317-25, 325,

357n; George Bush Sr's view

Testament

337; physical, 315-18, 321
of, 43; consciousness-raising

Bible Literacy Report, 344

Achilles and the tortoise, 81-2
messages, 1-4; conversion to,

Bierce, Ambrose, 60

Adam and Eve, 251-3

5-6; Founding Fathers, 39,

'big crunch', 145

Adams, Douglas, 20, 104,

43; fundamentalist, 282;
bin Laden, Osama, 303-4, 306

116-17,364

Hitler and Stalin, 272-8; hos-

Binker, 347-9

Adams, John, 40, 43, 45, 97
tility to religion, 281-2;

Biophilia (Wilson), 361

Adolf Hitler: The Definitive
numbers of atheists, 4-5;

Black Gang, The ('Sapper'), 266

Biography (Toland), 274
pride in, 3-4; view of God's
black holes, 146
advertising, 163-4
existence, 50-1, 109

Blackmore, Susan, 193, 196

Affirmations (Kurtz), 361

Atheism: A Very Short

Blair, Tony, 303, 331, 334, 335,

Afghanistan, 287

Introduction (Baggini), 13

336

Agnew, L. R., 299

Atheist Universe (Mills), 44, 84

Blaker, Kimberly, 288
agnosticism, 2, 46-54, 109

Atkins, Peter, 64, 118

Blank Slate, The (Pinker), 228

AIDS, 288, 289, 290, 291
atonement, 252, 253
blasphemy, 286-8

Alberts, Bruce, 101

Atran, Scott, 36, 177, 184

Bletchley Park, 289

Alexander, Cecil Frances, 31

Attenborough, David, 119,

Blind Watchmaker, The

Allah, 31, 186, 213

202-5, 335

(Dawkins), 372

Allen, Woody, 118-19

Attila the Hun, 269

Bloom, Paul, 179, 180, 183, 184
altruism, 216-21

Augustine, 132, 251-2

Boeing 747, 113, 122, 139, 141,

American Heart Journal, 63

Augustus Caesar, 93, 94

151,157

American Theocracy (Phillips),

Aunger, Robert, 196

Bohr, Niels, 365n

286

Australian aboriginal tribes, 165

Bondi, Hermann, 281

Amish, 329-31

Australopithecus afarensis, 301

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, 125

Amnesty International, 326

Bouquet, A. C, 269

Ampleforth, Abbot of, 356

Baal, 31, 53, 104, 244, 245-6

Bowen, Charles, 343

Angier, Natalie, 43-4
babblers, 219

Boyd, Robert, 196

Animal Liberation (Singer), 271
bacteria: flagellar motor, 130-2;

Boyer, Pascal, 36, 177-8, 184

Annunciation (Raphael), 86

TTSS, 131-2

Boykin, William G., 288

Anselm of Canterbury, 80-4

Badawi, Zaki, 25

Brahma, 33, 213

Anstey, R, 180

Baggini, Julian, 13
brain: evolution of, 179, 366-7,

'Answers in Genesis', 101
baptism, 311-15

371; 'god centre' in, 168-9
anthropic principle: cosmologi-
barchan, 370-1

Bray, Michael, 238, 294-5, 297
cal version, 141-51; planetary

Baring, Maurice, 298, 299

Breaking the Spell (Dennett),
version, 134-41

Barker, Dan, 324-5

230,352

Antonelli, Cardinal, 313

Barrett, James, 295

Brer Rabbit, 68-9

Antrim, Earls of, 261

Barrett, Justin, 184

Brief History of Time, A
apostasy, 287-8

Barrow, John, 135

(Hawking), 13

Aquinas, Thomas, 77-80, 107,

Barth, Bob, 66

Brights campaign, 338

150, 320-1
bats, 217, 372, 373

Britton, John, 295, 296
argument, author's central,

Baudouin I, King of the

Brockman, John, 152

157-8

Belgians, 59-60

Brodie, Richard, 196
arguments for the existence of

Bayes' Theorem, 105-8

Brown, Andrew, 332-3

God: Aquinas' 'proofs',

Beethoven, Ludwig van, 86,

Brown, Dan, 97

77-80, 107; Bayesian, 105-9;

108,298-9

Bruce, Lenny, 251
comical, 85; cosmological, 77;

Behe, Michael, 129-31, 133

Bryan, William Jennings, 284
from admired religious scien-

Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin, 100,

Bryan College, 284
tists, 97-103; from beauty,

102

Buckman, Robert, 205, 214

86-7; from degree, 78-9;
beliefs, false, 355-6

Buckner, Ed, 40
from design, 79, 107; from

Bell, Paul, 103

Buddhism, 37, 200, 394
personal 'experience', 87-92;

Belloc, Hilaire, 298

Bullock, Alan, 273
from personal incredulity,

Benson, Herbert, 62-3, 65

Bunting, Madeleine, 68

128, 129; from scripture,

Bentham, Jeremy, 232, 297

Bunuel, Luis, 233

1 N D E X

401

Burger, Warren, 330

25; correspondence with

Darwin, Charles: achievement,

Burnell, Jocelyn Bell, 71
author, 214; evangelical, 4,

119, 122, 367; attacks on,

Bush, George (Senior), 43

32-3, 238-9; fundamentalist,

213; career, 13; Darwinian

Bush, George W., 88, 291-2,

263, 336; lawsuits in US, 23;
explanations, 168-9;

303

'rapture', 302; violent, 301

Darwinian imperative, 163-6;

Bush, Jeb, 296

Christmas story, 94
destruction of argument from

Church of England, lln, 41
design, 79, 114; influence on

Cairns-Smith, A. G., 129

Churchill, Randolph, 31
religious belief, 98; natural

Caligula, 268, 269, 272

Churchill, Winston, 67, 289
selection, 114, 116-18, 140,

Cambrian Explosion, 127
circumcision, female, 329

155-8, 171-2, 182, 191; on

Camp Quest, 53

Civilta Cattolica, 311
theory of descent with modifi-

Campaign for Real Education,

Clarke, Arthur C, 72, 202
cation, 122-3, 125; Origin of

340
cleaner fish, and reputation,

Species, 11, 122-3

Can We Be Good Without God?

218n

Darwin, George, 99

(Buckman), 205, 214

Climbing Mount Improbable

Darwin's Cathedral (Wilson),
caprylic acid, 372

(Dawkins), 121-2, 124

170
cargo cults, 202-7

Collins, Francis, 99

David, King, 93, 95

Carlin, George, 279
colours, 372

Davies, Paul, 19, 70

Carlson, Tucker, 292

Comte, Auguste, 48, 71

Dawkins' God: Genes, Memes

Carr, Peter, 42

Confucianism, 37
and the Origin of Life

Carter, Brandon, 135

Conniff, Richard, 215n

(McGrath), 54

Catherine the Great, 84
conquistador es, 312
de la Bedoyere, Quentin, 46

Catholic Community Forum, 34
consequentialism, 232, 233,
death: attitudes to, 354-8; life

Catholic Encyclopedia, 32,

293-4
after, 356

33-4, 359
consolation, 352-60; by
death penalty, 291-2

Catholics for Christian Political
discovery of a previously
deism, 18, 19, 38, 39, 42-3, 46

Action, 290
unappreciated fact, 353-4;

Demon-Haunted World, The

Cattolico, //, 313
direct physical, 353; theory,

(Sagan), 366
cause: first, 155; uncaused, 77

168

Denmark, Muhammad cartoon

Centro Espirita Beneficiente

Constantine, Emperor, 33, 37
issue, 24-7

Uniao do Vegetal, 22

Contact (Sagan), 72

Dennett, Daniel: by-product

Chagnon, Napoleon, 170

Copenhagen interpretation, 365,
explanation of religion, 184;

Challenging Nature: The Clash

366
classification of 'stances',
of Science and Spirituality at

Corn well, R. Elisabeth, 101, 102

181-3; on argument from
the New Frontiers of Life
cosmological argument, 77
improbability, 157; on belief,

(Silver), 392

Coulter, Ann, 288, 321

14, 352; on cranes and sky-

Changing Faces of Jesus, The

Counterfeit World (Galouye), 73
hooks, 73; on intelligent

(Vermes), 251

Coyne, Jerry, 67, 133
design, 68; on morality, 230;

Chesterton, G. K., 298

'cranes', 2, 73, 155, 157, 158
on religious rituals, 164; on
children: abuse of, 315-25, 321;

Cranmer, Thomas, 414

Templeton Prize, 153; on
adoption of, 220, 221; cre-

Creation (Haydn), 87
trickle-down theory of
ationist beliefs of, 180-1;

Creation: Life and How to
creation, 117
defence of, 326-31; dualist

Make It (Grand), 370
deontology, 232
beliefs of, 179, 180; education

Creation Revisited (Atkins), 118

Desert Island Discs (BBC
of, 261, 307-8, 329-31,
creationism: argument from

Radio), 86

331-7; gullibility of, 174-7,
improbability, 113, 122;
design, appearance of, 2, 79,

179, 188; imaginary friends,
debates with creationists

113, 116, 121, 157-8

347-52; intentional stance of,
declined, 281; defences
design stance, 181-2, 183

183; labelling by religion,
against, 66-7; idea of 'irre-

Deuteronomy, book of, 246,

260-1, 337-40
ducible complexity', 129-33;

247

Chinese junk: drawing, 194-5;
innate predisposition to, 180;

Deutsch, David, 365
origami, 193-4
worship of gaps, 125-8

Devil's Chaplain, A (Dawkins),

Chinese Whispers (Telephone),

Creationism's Trojan Horse

281,355

194, 195-6

(Forrest and Gross), 211

Dickinson, Emily, 361

Christian Brothers, 316-17

Cretaceous extinction, 47, 50

Did Jesus Exist? (Wells), 97

Christian Coalition, 290

Crick, Francis, 99-100

Diderot, Denis, 18, 84

Christian Institute, 332

Crumboblious Cutlets, 78

Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective

Christian Life City Church, 332

Crusades, 1, 312

Agency (Adams), 104

Christianity: adaptation for
cuckoos, 220

Distin, Kate, 196

Gentiles, 94; 'American

Culture and the Evolutionary

DNA, 137, 191, 192, 361

Taliban', 288, 289, 292-3;

Process (Boyd and Richerson),

Dobson, James, 177
beliefs, 178-9; conversion to,

196
doctors, 167

287; foundation, 37, 213; fun-

Curie, Marie and Pierre, 99
dodos, 267
damentalist, 95; in US, 40-3,
dogs, 372-3

263, 319-20; religious educa-

Da Vinci Code, The (Brown), 97

Doing Away with God?

tion, 3, 306, 307-8; under

Dahl, Roald, 299

(Stannard), 281

Hitler, 276-7

Daily Telegraph, 332

Dolittle, Doctor, 13

Christians: attacked in Nigeria,

Darrow, Clarence, 52

Dominion Theology, 319

402

T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Donne, John, 221

Feynman, Richard, 365

God Who Wasn't There, The

Dornan, Bob, 288

Finding Darwin's God (Miller),

(Flemming), 211

Dostoevsky, Feodor, 227

131

Goebbels, Josef, 277

Douglas, Stephen A., 267

Fisher, Helen, 184-5

Goering, Hermann, 274

Douglas, William O., 330

Flatland (Abbott), 372

Golden Bough, The (Frazer), 36,

Downey, Margaret, 45

Flemming, Brian, 211-12

188

Drake Equation, 70-1

Flew, Antony, 82n
golden calf, 244-5

Dreams of a Final Theory

'Flood geology', 334

Goldilocks zone, 135-7, 143,

(Weinberg), 12

Flying Spaghetti Monster, 53, 55

147

Drummond, Bulldog, 266

Flynn, Tom, 44n, 94

Goldwater, Barry, 39
dualism, 179-81, 183

Forrest, Barbara, 211

Golgi Apparatus, 283-4, 285

Dutchman's Pipe, 120
fossil record, 127-8

Good Samaritan, 215, 220

Dyson, Freeman, 144, 152

Founding Fathers, 38-46

Goodenough, Ursula, 13

Franklin, Benjamin, 43

Goodwin, Jan, 302

Earth, orbit of, 135-6

Fraser, Giles, 41
gospels, 92-7, 152

Edge website, 152

Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 48

Gott, John William, 288
education: Amish, 329-31; cre-

Frayn, Michael, 183

Gould, Stephen Jay, 55, 57-8,
ationist, 331-7; religious,

Frazer, James, 36, 188

60, 71, 284

341-4; segregated, 261; teach-

Free Inquiry, 6-1, 44n, 94, 96n

Graham, Billy, 95
ing that faith is a virtue,

Freedom From Religion

Grand, Steve, 370, 371

307-8

Foundation (FFRF), 212

Graves, Robert, 252

Ehrman, Bart, 95

Freethinkers: A History of

Gray, Muriel, 304, 394

Einstein, Albert: mask of, 89; on

American Secularism (Jacoby), Grayling, A. C., 231, 393
morality, 226; on personal

38

Great Beethoven Fallacy,

God, 9, 15; on purpose of life,

Freethought Society of Greater

298-300

209; religious views, 13, 14,

Philadelphia, 45

Great Vowel Shift, 189, 198-9

15-19, 20

Freethought Today, 212

Greer, Germaine, 25

Eisenhower, Dwight, 289

French, Peter, 336

Gregory, Richard, 389

Electric Meme, The (Aunger),

Frisch, Karl von, 182

Gregory the Miracle Worker, 34

196

Frum, John, 203-6

Gross, Paul, 211
electrons, 147-8, 363-4
fundamentalism, 282-6
group selection, 169-72

Elizabeth II, Queen, 205-6

Fundamentals of Extremism,

Guardian, 41, 133, 294, 332
embryos, human, 291-8, 300

The (Blaker), 288

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 29

HADD (hyperactive agent detec-

Emmanuel College, Gateshead,

Galileo, 369
tion device), 184

331-7

Galouye, Daniel E, 73

Haggard, Ted ('Pastor Ted'),

End of Faith, The (Harris), 88,

Galton, Francis, 61

319, 320

278

Gandhi, Mohandas, 45, 250, 271

Haitian Voodoo, 326

Engel, Gerhard, 274
gaps, worship of, 125-34

Haldane, J. B. S., 128, 364, 372,

Enigma code, 289

Gasking, Douglas, 83-4

374
eucaryotic cell, 140

Gaunilo, 83

Halley's Comet, 136

Euler, Leonhard, 84

Gaylor, Anne, 395
hallucinations, 88, 154, 349-51
euthanasia, 293, 356-7

Gell-Mann, Murray, 146

Hamilton, W. D., 216
evidence, 282-3
gene, selfish, 215-16

Hari, Johann, 302
evil, existence of, 108
gene cartels, 197-8

Harries, Richard, 335
evolution: belief in, 282-3; con-
generosity, 218-19, 220, 221

Harris, Sam: on bin Laden,
tinuity, 300-1; design and, 61,
genes, 191, 192, 197-8

303-4; on end-of-world

79, 158; evolved organs, 129,

Genes, Memes and Human
beliefs, 302; on nakedness,

134; process of, 122, 134-5

History (Shennan), 196

252; on religion and crime,

Evolution vs Creationism

Genesis, book of, 237-8, 240,

229-30; on religion and san-

(Scott), 66

242,334
ity, 88; on religion and war,

Exclusive Brethren, the, 321-2
genetic drift, 189

278; on suicide bomber,

Existence of God, The

Genghis Khan, 268-9

304-5

(Swinburne), 64n

Gershwin, George, 94

Hartung, John, 253, 254-5,

Extended Phenotype, The
ghosts, 90-1

257-8

(Dawkins), 165

Gillooly, Robert, 94

Has Science Found God?

eyes, 123-4, 139, 179

Glenn, Norval D., 261

(Stenger), 118

Glover, J., 393

Hassan, Nasra, 305

Fabric of Reality, The (Deutsch),

God, Chance and Necessity

Haught, James, 98

365

(Ward), 149-50

Hauser, Marc, 214, 222-6
faith, 308

'god centre' in brain, 168-9

Hawking, Stephen, 13, 14, 18

Falwell, Jerry, 289

God Hypothesis: argument from

Haydn, Josef, 87

Faraday, Michael, 98
improbability, 114; definition,

HealthFreedomUSA, 369

Fatima vision (1917), 91-2

31, 38, 58, 71; goodness
hell, 319-22

Faulhaber, Michael, 277
issue, 108; invulnerability to

Hell Houses, 319-20

Female of the Species, The
science, 66; probability of, 46,

Helms, Jesse, 290

('Sapper'), 266

114; simplicity, 149; unten-

Herod, King, 93, 94
feminism, 115-16
able, 158; versions, 32

Hess, Rudolf, 273-4

I N D E X

403

Hill, Paul, 294-5, 296-7

Iraq: invasion of, 21, 268, 303;

Jupiter, planet, 136

Hinde, Robert, 177, 184, 214,
sectarian conflict, 21, 260

Just Six Numbers (Rees), 141-2

232, 341

Ireland, education, 316-17

Jyllands-Posten, 24, 25

Hinduism, 32, 33, 260
irreducible complexity (IC), 122,

Hiroshima, 64n

125, 131
kamikazes, 306

His Dark Materials (Pullman),

Is There a God? (Swinburne),

Kaminer, Wendy, 4

130n

58, 147

Kant, Immanuel, 83, 224,

Hitchcock, Alfred, 315

Isaac, 242-3, 251, 265

231-2, 233

Hitchens, Christopher, 42, 292,

Ishmael, 242

Karzai, Hamid, 287

354

Islam: as memeplex, 200;

Katrina, hurricane, 239

Hitchhiker's Guide to the

Danish cartoon issue, 24-7;

Keleman, Deborah, 181, 184

Galaxy, The (Adams), 364
foundation, 37, 287; Indian

Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord,

Hitler, Adolf: atheist or not,
partition, 260; law on inter-

98-9

153, 272-8; birth, 299;
marriage, 287; power of

Kenny, Anthony, 186

Catholicism, 273-7; evil
scripture, 242; religious edu-

Ken's Guide to the Bible, 258
actions, 107,231,268-9;
cation, 3, 306; status of

Kertzer, David I., 311
fight against, 67; Jewish pol-
women, 302

Khomeini, Ayatollah, 288
icy, 16; morality, 230-1, 247;

Israel: Palestinian conflict, 1,

Kidnapping of Edgar do

Zeitgeist of his time, 270

302; schoolchildren's view of

Mortara, The (Kertzer), 311

Hollo way, Richard, 237

Joshua, 255-7

Kilduff, M., 394

Holocaust, 64

IVF (in vitro fertilization), 294
kindness, 218-19,221
homosexuality: Darwinian

King, Coretta Scott, 290-1
approach, 166; religious atti-

Jacoby, Susan, 38

King, Martin Luther, 250, 271,
tudes, 23-4, 238, 248,

Jammer, Max, 16

290

289-91; US attitudes, 23-4,

Javers, R., 394

King Jesus (Graves), 252

238, 288, 289-91

Jaynes, Julian, 350-1
kinship, 216, 218, 220

Horgan, John, 151-3

Jefferson, Thomas: religious

Kohn, Marek, 161

How the Mind Works (Pinker),
views, 42-3, 45, 75, 111; sup-

Koran, see Qur'an

168
port for Paine, 38; view of

KPFT-FM, Irish radio station,

How We Believe (Shermer), 102,
death, 354; view of God, 31;

339

168
view of Jesus' birth, 97; view

Kurtz, Paul, 361

Hoyle, Fred, 72, 113, 117, 122,
of Trinity, 34

142

Jephthah, 243

Ladman, Cathy, 167-8

Hugo, Victor, 309

Jericho, battle of, 247, 255-7,

Lady Chatterley's Lover

Human Genome Project, 99

261

(Lawrence), 268

Hume, Basil, 356, 358

Jerry Springer, the Opera, 288

Lane, B., 394

Hume, David, 83, 91, 114, 157

Jesus: accounts of life, 95-7,

Lane Fox, Robin, 93-4, 95

Humphrey, Nicholas, 325-6,

206; atonement for sin,
language evolution, 189, 198

327-30

251-3; birth, 93-5, 97; divine

Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 46n

Huxley, Aldous, 84, 86
status, 92; ethics, 250-1;

Larson, Edward J., 100-1, 102

Huxley, Julian, 150

Jewish background, 257, 276;

Latimer, Hugh, 314

Huxley, T. H.: agnosticism,
miracles, 59, 73, 107; parent-

Laughing Gas (Wodehouse), 180

48-50, 54, 71; misquoted,
age, 59; persona, 31; power,

Lawrence, Raymond J., 65

213; position in moral

213

Layfield, Stephen, 332-6

Zeitgeist, 271; racial

Jesus (Wilson), 93, 96n

Lear, Edward, 78
perspective, 266-7

Jews: Arab anti-Jewish cartoons,
leaves, 139
hydrogen, 142-3

26; children's loyalty to

Lennon, John, 1

Judaism, 255-7; Christian

Leslie, John, 144

Idolatry (Halbertal and
anti-semitism, 1, 275;

Letter to a Christian Nation

Margalit), 244

Einstein, 16; electability in US,

(Harris), 229-30, 252, 302
ignorance, 125-6

4; Hitler's policy towards, 16,

Letting Go of God (Sweeney),
illusions, optical, 89-90, 154

274-5; Holocaust, 64; lobby

250, 323-4
imaginary friends, 347-52
in US, 4, 44; Mortara kidnap

Leviticus, book of, 248
immune system, 133
case, 311-15; religious beliefs,

Lewis, C.S., 92

In Gods We Trust (Atran), 36,

14, 37, 53, 259; religious

Lewontin, Richard, 164

177
homogamy, 262

LGM (Little Green Men) signal,

Inca religion, 327-8

John, gospel of, 93

71-2

Independent, 21, 52n, 249, 302,

John Paul II, Pope, 35, 67

Liberty University, 289

333, 337-8, 340

Johnson, Phillip E., 5, 82n
life, origin of, 137-41

India, partition, 1, 45-6, 260

Jones, John E., 131, 133

Life - How Did It Get Here?,
indulgences, 358

Joseph, 93-4, 95, 96n

119

Inquisition, 312-13

Joshua, 247, 255-7, 261

Life of Brian, The (Monty
inspiration, 360-2

Joshua, book of, 247

Python), 202
intelligent design (ID), 61, 82n,

Judaism, see Jews

Life of the Cosmos, The

113, 124-5, 126, 131-3

Judas Iscariot, 252-3

(Smolin), 146
intentional stance, 182-3

Judges, book of, 240-1, 243, 255

Life Science, The (Medawar),

IQ and religiosity, 102-3

Juergensmeyer, Mark, 294, 295

298

Iran, rule of ayatollahs, 302

Jung, Carl Gustav, 50, 51
light, visible, 362-3

404

T H E G O D D E L U S I O N

Lincoln, Abraham, 266-7

Mills, David, 44, 84-5

News of the World, 315, 316
linkage, 197

Mind of God, The (Davies), 19

Newsday, 254

Lofting, Hugh, 13

Miracle of Theism, The

Newton, Isaac, 98, 122

Loftus, Elizabeth, 316

(Mackie), 83

1984 (Orwell), 286, 287

London bombings (July 2005),
miracles, 58-60, 61
nineteenth century, 156-7

1, 303, 306

Missionary Position, The

Nixon, James, 23

Lords of the Golden Horn

(Hitchens), 292

Noah, 237-8, 334

(Barber), 272

Mona Lisa, 89

Nobel Prize, 100, 103, 142,

Los Angeles Times, 23

'Monkey Trial'(1925), 284

153, 292

Losing Faith in Faith (Barker),
monotheism, 37-8

NOMA (non-overlapping

325

Montreal police strike, 228-9
magisteria), 54-61, 101, 153n

Lot, 239-40

Mooney, C, 396

Northern Ireland: names of
love, irrational, 184-6

Moore's Law, 272
factions, 21, 339; religious

Luke, gospel of, 93-4, 95
moral dilemmas, 222-6
culture, 166; sectarian

Luther, Martin, 190, 200, 275,

Moral Minds (Hauser), 214, 222
conflict, 1, 260; segregated

285-6
morality, 206-7, 211-33
education, 259
lying, 231

Morisi, Anna, 311

Not By Genes Alone (Richerson

Mormonism, 36, 201
and Boyd), 196

McGrath, Alister, 54-5

Morris, Henry, 334
nuclear fusion, 142

Mackie, J. L., 82-3

Mortara, Edgardo, 311-15
nucleus, atomic, 142

McQuoid, Nigel, 332, 334, 336

Moses, 73, 244-8, 255, 341

Numbers, book of, 245

Madison, James, 43, 45
moths, 172-4

Madrid bombings, 306
motive to be good, 231
obedience, 174-6

Magdalene Asylums, 317
mover, unmoved, 77

Observer, 281

Magdalene Sisters, The, 317

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 86

O'Casey, Sean, 235
magic, homoeopathic, 188

Mueller, Andrew, 25-6, 52

OFSTED, 335

Maimonides, Moses, 254, 256-7

Muhammad: cartoons depicting,

Old Testament, 31, 38, 108,

Malallah, Sadiq Abdul Karim,

24-7; foundation of Islam, 37,

237-50, 254, 286; God of, see

287

287

Yahweh

Malcolm, Norman, 83

Mullan, Peter, 317
omnipotence, 77-8

Malcolm, Wayne, 332, 334

Mulligan, Geoffrey, 204
omniscience, 77-8

Manx Shearwater, 87
multiverse theory, 145-7

On the Jews and their Lies

Mark, gospel of, 96, 320, 352
mutation rate, 192

(Luther), 275
marriage, 261-2

Myers, P. Z., 69, 319n

Onion, 288, 319n
martyrdom, 171, 305, 308

Mytton,Jill, 321-2, 325

Operation Rescue, 292, 294

Marx, Karl, 276

Optimism: The Biology of Hope

Mary, see Virgin Mary

Nambas, 204-5

(Tiger), 187

Masih, Augustine Ashiq 'Kingri',

Napoleon, 46n, 276

Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold, The

287

National Academy of Sciences,

(Waugh), 350

Matthew, gospel of, 93, 94, 95,

100-1
origami, 193-5

275, 343

National Center for Science

Origin of Consciousness in the

Maxwell, James Clerk, 98

Education (NCSE), 66-7

Breakdown of the Bicameral

Meaning of Life, The (Monty
natural selection: altruism

Mind, The (Jaynes), 350

Python), 300
favoured by, 217, 221; as a

Origin of Species, The (Darwin),

Medawar, Jean, 298, 299-300
consciousness-raiser, 2,

11,98, 122-3

Medawar, Peter, 154, 298,

114-19, 134, 143-4; as
original sin, 252

299-300

'crane', 73, 140, 158; chance

Origins of Virtue, The (Ridley),

Mein Kampf (Hitler), 273, 275
and, 113, 140; children's view

218

Meme Machine, The
of, 180; favouring rules of

Orwell, George, 287

(Blackmore), 193, 196
thumb, 220-1; genetic, 201;

Our Cosmic Habitat (Rees), 55
memeplexes, 196-7, 198-200
improbability and, 113-14;

Owens, Jesse, 271
memes, 191-201; religious,
replicators, 191; versus

Owens, Karen, 78

199-200
design, 2, 79, 114, 141

Oxford Companion to

Men Who Stare at Goats, The

Natural Theology (Paley), 79

Philosophy, 108

(Ronson), 368

Nature, 100, 101

Mencken, H. L., 27, 228, 230n,

Naughtie, James, 336
pacifism, 21

331

Nautilus, 124
paedomorphosis, 350

Mendel, Gregor, 99

Necker Cube, 89
pain, 169

Mendel's Demon (Ridley), 140

Nehru, Jawaharlal, 45

Paine, Thomas, 38

Mensa Magazine, 103

New College, Oxford, 358-9

Pakistan: Danish cartoon issue,

Micah's prophecy, 93, 94

New Orleans, 238-9

24-5, 26; penalty for blas-

Michelangelo, 86

New Republic, 269
phemy, 286-7

Middle World, 367-8, 369-70,

New Statesman, 22

Pale Blue Dot (Sagan), 12, 361

373-4

New Testament, 250-3

Paley, William, 79

Midianites, 245

New York Times, 44, 65, 68n,

Palin, Michael, 300

Mill, James, 232

254, 290
pantheism, 18-19

Mill, John Stuart, 4, 232

New Yorker, 305

PAP (Permanent Agnosticism in

Miller, Kenneth, 131

Newhart, Bob, 62, 64

Principle), 47-8, 51, 58

I N D E X

405

Papua New Guinea, aboriginal
regress, 77

Sacranie, Iqbal, 25-6, 287-8
peoples, 166
religion: as a by-product of

Sacred Depths of Nature, The

Parfitt, Derek, 399
something else, 172-9;

(Goodenough), 13
particles, 147
cargo cults, 202-7; the
sacrifice, human, 327-8

Pascal, Blaise, 103-5, 249

Darwinian imperative, 163-6;

Saddam Hussein, 107, 247, 273

Pascal's Wager, 103-5
direct advantages of, 166-9;

Sagan, Carl: Contact, 72;
patriotism, 232-3
group selection, 169-72;

Demon-haunted World, 366;

Paul of Tarsus, 37, 93, 252,
meme theory, 191-201;
on life elsewhere in universe,

253, 257, 276
psychologically primed for,

47, 69-70; on love of science,
peacock, tail of, 163

179-90; survival value of,

366; on religion and the

Peacocke, Arthur, 99, 150

172

Universe, 12; on views of

Pearson, F. S., 191n

Religion Explained (Boyer), 36,

God, 19; Pale Blue Dot, 12,
pedophilia, 315-16

177

361

Penn and Teller, 128-9

Religious Coalition for

St Matthew Passion (Bach), 86

Permian extinction, 47, 50

Reproductive Choice, 297n

Salmon of Doubt, The (Adams),

Persinger, Michael, 168

Renfrew, Colin, 170

116
personal incredulity, argument
replicators, 191, 192

Sanhedrin, 254
from, 128, 129
reputation, 218-19

Sarah, 241-2

Pharaoh, 242

Revelation, book of, 257-8, 302

Satan, 5, 91, 108, 304

Phelps, Fred, 290-1

Richard Dawkins Foundation

Saudi Arabia: status of women,

Philip, Prince, 205-6
for Reason and Science

302; Wahhabism, 249, 288

Phillips, Kevin, 286

(RDFRS), 7, 363

Scarborough, Rick, 23
physical stance, 181

Richerson, Peter, 196

Schrodinger, Erwin, 365-6

Pinker, Steven, 168, 228

Ridley, Mark, 140

Schubert, Franz, 86, 87

Pirsig, Robert M., 5

Ridley, Matt, 125, 218

Science and Christian Belief

Pius X, Pope, 358

Ridley, Nicholas, 314

(Polkinghorne), 150

Pius XII, Pope, 277

RNA, 137

Science of Good and Evil, The
placebo effect, 167-8

Roberts, Keenan, 319-20

(Shermer), 214, 226
planets, numbers of, 137-8

Roberts, Oral, 32-3

Scientology, 201

Point Counter Point (Huxley),

Robertson, Pat, 239, 290

Scopes, John, 284

84, 86

Robeson, Paul, 271

Scott, Eugenie, 66

Poitier, Sidney, 271

Robinson, Jackie, 271

Seaton, Nick, 340

Polkinghorne, John, 99, 147, 150

Rocks of Ages (Gould), 55, 57

Secular Bible, The
polytheism, 32-6

Roman Catholic Church:

(Berlinerblau), 95

Potlatch Effect, 218-19
bortion policy, 60, 291;
secularism, 38-46

Potter, Gary, 290
abuse of children, 316-18,
self-deception, 187
prayer, 61-6

321; as memeplex, 200;

Selfish Gene, The (Dawkins),
pre-Cambrian, fossil rabbits in,
doctrine of purgatory,

196, 215n

128

358-60; Hitler's religion,

Selfish Meme, The (Distin), 196

Price of Honour (Goodwin),

273-4; marriage policy,

Seneca the Younger, 276

302

261; miracle policy, 59-60;

SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial

Probability of God, The

Mortara kidnap case,

Intelligence), 70, 71, 72, 73,

(Unwin), 105

311-15; polytheism of,

138

'pro-life' campaigns, 300

34-5; role of guilt, 167

Seven Clues to the Origin of
proofs of God's existence, 85

Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare),

Life (Cairns-Smith), 129

Providence, 277

221, 222
sexual behaviour, 166, 169,
psychology, evolutionary, 179

Ronson, Jon, 368-9

221-2

Pullman, Philip, 130n

Roosevelt, Franklin, 67

Shaheen, Naseeb, 344
pulsars, 71-2

Root of All Evil? (Channel

Shaikh, Younis, 287
purgatory, 358-60

Four), 1, 6, 318

Shakespeare, William, 86, 87,

Rothschild, Eric, 133

221-2, 243, 344
quantum theory, 364-5

Rothschild, Lionel, 313

Shaw, George Bernard, 167

Quest in Paradise

Royal Institution Christmas

Sheen, Fulton J., 19

(Attenborough), 202

Lectures, 363

Shennan, Stephen, 196

Quirinius, governor of Syria, 93

Royal Society, 101-2, 281, 335

Sherman, Robert, 43

Qur'an, 37, 307, 344

Rumsfeld, Donald, 268

Shermer, Michael, 102, 168,

Ruse, Michael, 67-9

184, 214, 226-7, 345, 361
race, attitudes to, 265-7

Rushdie, Salman, 22, 25, 260

Shorter Oxford Dictionary, 353

Rahman, Abdul, 287

Ruskin, John, 118

Shulevitz, Judith, 68n

Raphael, 86

Russell, Bertrand: briefly con-

Silver, L. M., 386, 392

'Rapture Ready', 254
vinced by ontological
sin, 251-2

Rawls, John, 264
argument, 81-2; courageous

Singer, Peter, 225-6, 271, 392

Reagan, Ronald, 288
views, 104; on death from

Sins of Scripture, The (Spong),
reciprocation, 216-18, 220
belief, 306; on outward belief

237

Reconstructionists, 319
in religion, 97; teapot parable,

Sistine Chapel, 86
redwood, giant, 120

51-2, 53, 54, 69; view of

Six Impossible Things Before

Rees, Martin, 14, 55-6, 141-5/
death, 354-5

Breakfast /Wolpert), 186-7

156

Russian Orthodox Church, 273

Skilling, Jeff, 215n

406

T H E G O D D E L U S I G N

'skyhooks', 73, 155, 157, 158

Templeton Foundation, 19,

Wace, Henry, 48-9
slavery, 169, 265, 271

62-3, 65, 151-3, 344

Wagner, Richard, 344
slippery slope arguments, 293-4

Templeton Prize, 19, 98n, 99,

Wahhabism, 249, 288

Smith, Joseph, 201

152-3, 285

Wallace, Alfred Russel, 118, 119

Smith, Ken, 258

Ten Commandments, 42, 237,

Ward, Keith, 149-50

Smolin, Lee, 146, 156

244, 246, 248; New, 263-4

Ward, Lalla, 1, 98n

Smythies, John, 185

Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, 175

Warraq, Ibn, 32, 96n, 307

Snowflakes, 294

Teresa of Avila, 186

Washington, George, 40, 45

Social Evolution (Trivers), 187

Teresa of Calcutta, 292

Washington Post, 290

Sodom and Gomorrah, 239-40

Terror in the Mind of God

Watchtower, 119-21

Sookhdeo, Patrick, 307

(Juergensmeyer), 294
water, 136-7

Soul of Science, The (Shermer),
terrorists, 304-5

Watson, James, 99-100

361

Terry, Randall, 292-3, 294

Watts, Isaac, 258-9

Spectator, 307
theism, 18, 38, 50, 54, 109, 143

Waugh, Auberon, 156n
spectrum of probabilities, 50-1
theocracy, American Christian,

Waugh, Evelyn, 31, 350

Spinoza, Benedict, 18

286,319

Weinberg, Steven, 12-13, 249

Spong, John Shelby, 237
theodicy, 108

Wells, G. A., 97

Stalin, Joseph, 67, 107, 153,

Thomas, gospel of, 96

Wells, H. G., 269-70

272-3,278

Thomas Jefferson: Author of

Whitcomb, John C, 334

Stamp Dawkins, M., 396

America (Hitchens), 42

White, Gilbert, 13
stances, 181-4

Thomson, J. Anderson, 143

Why Gods Persist (Hinde), 177,

Stannard, Russell, 61-2, 99,

Tiger, Lionel, 187

341

147,281

Tin Men, The (Frayn), 183

Why Good is Good (Hinde),
stars, 48, 71-2, 142, 146

Tipler, Frank, 135

214
stem-cell research, 294

Tit-for-Tat, 218

Why I Am Not a Muslim

Stenger, Victor, 118

Toland, John, 274

(Warraq), 32, 307

Sterelny, Kim, 165-6

Tonge, Jenny, 331

Why We Love (Fisher), 184

Stevas, Norman St John, 298

Trinity, 33-4, 152, 200

Wickramasinghe, Chandra, 113

Stirrat, Michael, 101, 102

Trivers, Robert, 187, 216

Wilde, Oscar, 191
strong force, 142

Turing, Alan, 289

William of Wykeham, 358-9

Stubblebine, General, 368-9

Twain, Mark, 354, 357

Williamson, Hugh Ross, 46
suffering, 297

2000 Years of Disbelief

Wilson, A. N., 93, 96n
suicide: assisted, 356-7;

(Haught), 98

Wilson, D. S., 170
bombers, 1, 304-5, 308

Type Three Secretory System

Wilson, E. O., 67, 347

Sulloway, Frank, 102

(TTSS), 131-2
wings, 123-4, 139, 179

Supreme Court, US, 22, 291,

Winston, Robert, 14

329-31

Unauthorized Version, The

Wise, Kurt, 284-6

Susskind, Leonard, 118, 145

(Lane Fox), 93, 95

Witham, Larry, 100-1, 102

Sutcliffe, Peter, 88
unicorn, 52

Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 367, 368

Sweeney, Julia, 4, 250, 323-5

United States of America, 38-46

Wodehouse, P. G., 180, 343-4

Swinburne, Richard, 58, 63-5,

Unweaving the Rainbow

Wolpert, Lewis, 186-7, 366

147-50

(Dawkins), 214, 361
women, status of, 265, 271, 302
symbiosis, 216-17

Unwin, Stephen, 105-8

World Trade Center, 1, 303, 306
utilitarianism, 232, 293

Wotan, 31, 35, 53

Table Talk (Hitler), 276

Wuthering Heights (Bronte), 86

Taliban: art appreciation, 1,
vampire bats, 217

248-9; punishment for homo-

Vanuatu, 203-6

Yahweh (God of Old
sexuality, 289; religious views,

Vardy, Peter, 331-2, 334, 336

Testament): deplorable

246, 263, 287, 288; treatment

Veblen, Thorstein, 218-19
character of, 31, 38, 248;
of women, 290, 302

Venter, Craig, 99n
existence of, 53; falling in love

Tamarin, George, 255-7

Venus, 35
with, 186; God of Old

Tamil Tigers, 306

Venus' Flower Basket

Testament, 20; jealousy, 104,

Tanna, 203-6

{Euplectella), 119

243-6; power of, 213;

Tanner Lectures, 6

Vermes, Geza, 206, 251, 253
shocking role model, 241,

TAP (Temporary Agnosticism in

Vice Versa (Anstey), 180

248; treatment of humans,

' Practice), 47, 48, 51

Vidal, Gore, 37

238-40, 243, 245, 247-8

Tasmanian wolf, 268

Virgin Mary, 34, 35, 91, 93, 186

Yugoslavia, former, 21
teapot, celestial, 51-2, 53, 54,

Virus of the Mind (Brodie), 196

55
viruses, mental, 186, 188

Zahavi, Amotz, 218-20

Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 154
visions, 90, 91-2

Zeitgeist, moral, 265-72, 286,
teleological argument, 79, 181

Voltaire, 18, 38, 306

303

Teller, Penn and, 128-9
von Neumann, John, 289

Zeno, 81

Table of Contents

- Chapter 1
- Chapter 2
- Chapter 3
- CHAPTER 1
- CHAPTER 2
- CHAPTER 3
- CHAPTER 4
- CHAPTER 5
- CHAPTER 6
- CHAPTER 7
- CHAPTER 8
- CHAPTER 9
- CHAPTER 10
- Chapter 1: A deeply religious non-believer
- Chapter 2: The God Hypothesis
- Chapter 5: The roots of religion